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LABORATORY EXERCISES 

TO ACCOMPANY 

WAGGONER’S MODERN 
BIOLOGY 


BY 

MARY ALLISON BENNETT, B.S. 

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY 
WESTERN ILLINOIS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE 




D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON 
ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO DALLAS 





Copyright, 1926, 

By D. C. Heath and Compaj^y 

2 H 6 



PRINTED IN U.3.A. 


SEP2776 

©Cl AOSHIC 




1 


PREFACE 


This set of laboratory exercises is intended to form an integral 
part of a year’s course in elementary biology. It is especially 
prepared to accompany and to supplement Waggoner’s Modern 
Biology: Its Human Aspects, and as such can be used to the 
greatest advantage. The exercises are so arranged that they 
can be employed almost equally well in the laboratory which 
has little equipment and in one which is complete in every re¬ 
spect. While the demonstration method of presentation is sug¬ 
gested as being the most economical of supplies and probably 
the most effective in results, the directions are so planned that 
in most cases the individual method of study may be used when 
so desired. Throughout the course, the availability of the ma¬ 
terial to be employed has been kept in mind. In the majority of 
the exercises where live specimens are to be preferred, it should 
be .possible to obtain them at the season of year for which they 
are suggested. To facilitate the use of the exercises, notations 
are inserted to call attention to the need of advance preparation 
of materials. It is advised that much of the work be done in the 
field, either by the class as a whole or by individuals. However, 
under conditions which make field work inexpedient, the ma¬ 
jority of the exercises are suitable for indoor use. Throughout 
the book the attempt has been made to conform to the recom¬ 
mendations of the Commission on the Reorganization of Second¬ 
ary Education appointed by the National Education Associ¬ 
ation (Bulletin No. 26, 1920). 

The suggested laboratory exercises are ones which have been 
in use or have grown out of work done in the high school de¬ 
partment of the Western Illinois State Teachers College during 
an extended period of years. The author wishes to acknowledge 


VI 


PREFACE 


her indebtedness to Dr. H. D. Waggoner, head of the Biology De¬ 
partment of this school, for his large contribution to the subject 
matter of this book, his unfailing advice, and his criticism of 
its contents and of the actual use of the exercises preceding their 
compilation in their present form. 

Mary A. Bennett 

Macomb, Illinois 
June, 1926 


DIRECTIONS TO THE INSTRUCTOR 


The exercises in this book are so planned that they may be 
adapted to various forms of presentation, to schools whose labo¬ 
ratory equipment is complete or meager, and to the varying 
conditions of climate and of community life where the guide 
is to be used. In general, it is advised that the work be done 
in the field when it is so suggested; that the demonstration 
method of presentation be employed in the majority of the exer¬ 
cises (see Downing, Teaching Science in the Schools, Chapter 
VIII, University of Chicago Press, 1925); and that the textbook 
and these laboratory exercises be regarded as supplementary 
to each other. 

Early in the year the instructor should carefully note what 
materials are required for the exercises which he plans to use. 
He should then make provision for them by the collection and 
preservation of such material and by placing early orders with 
supply companies when additional material is needed. No¬ 
tations are made at appropriate points in the Manual to remind 
the instructor of such material as must be prepared immediately 
before it is used. 

It is advised that where microscopic studies are to be made 
by students of secondary schools, the manipulation of the micro¬ 
scope and the preparation of slides should both be cared for by 
the instructor. The use of a projection microscope will greatly 
facilitate such studies and will add much to the efficiency of 
instruction. 

If studies of the internal anatomy of animals are desired, the 
use of specimens previously dissected and prepared by the instruc¬ 
tor or of museum dissections (which are permanently mounted 
and may be obtained from supply houses) is recommended. 
The use of such preparations obviates the current objections 

vii 


viii DIRECTIONS TO THE INSTRUCTOR 

to dissection and the waste of material through frequent failures 
of pupils to make successful dissections. 

The pupil’s notebook work should be done carefully so that it 
shall lead to correct concepts and clearly defined results. It should 
be accurate but at the same time economical of the pupil’s time. 
It should never become an end in itself or a means of marking 
time. In general the drawings should show only what can be 
seen and should be done mainly in outline. Shading should be 
discouraged. The use of a hard lead pencil for drawing is ad¬ 
visable. All structures referred to in the accompanying exercise 
should he labeled in the required drawings. These labels are to 
be written or printed neatly at the side of the picture, parallel 
to the bottom of the page. They should be connected with 
the structure indicated by a straight solid or dotted line. (As 
an example, see Waggoner, Fig. 12.) Drawings are frequently 
suggested by the author but others may be asked for by the 
instructor. In some exercises the drawings may be the only 
notebook work required, but where written work seems to be 
desirable, it should be done in ink and should be clear, concise, 
and accurate. Incorrect spelling and poor English should not 
be tolerated. 

Finally, more exercises are provided than can well be used in 
a single year’s course in elementary biology. Therefore a number 
are indicated as supplementary and may be substituted for or 
used in addition to the others. It is advised that if Waggoner’s 
Modern Biology is used as a text, all exercises not indicated as 
supplementary shall be utilized so far as it is practicable. As 
additional individual problems, parts of Exercise 85 should be 
assigned. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


EXERCISE PAGE 

1. .Grasses. 1 

2. The Corn Plant . 1 

3. The Simple Flower. 3 

4. Types of Simple Flowers. 4 

5. A Composite Flower . . ‘ . 4 

6. Pollination, Part I. 5 

7. Pollination, Part II . 6 

8. Fruits. 7 

9. Seed Dispersal. 8 

10. The Seeds of the Corn and Bean. 9 

11. Corn and Bean Seedlings.10 

12. Conditions Favoring the Germination of Seeds .... 11 

13. Tests for Nutrients .12 

14. Nutrients Stored in a Seed.13 

15. The Action of Enzymes — Ptyalin upon Starch .... 15 

16. Respiration.16 

17. Roots. • ..16 

18. Root Hairs.17 

19. Transplanting Shrubs and Trees. 18 

20. Cell Structure.19 

21. Cell Division — Mitosis.19 

22. Diffusion. 20 

23. Osmosis. 21 

24. Soils.22 

25. Buds and Branches.23 

26. The Internal Structure of a Stem.24 

27. A Block of Oak Wood .25 

28. Vegetative Propagation of Plants .26 

29. The External Structure of a Leaf.27 

30. Leaf Arrangement .28 

31. The Internal Structure of a Leaf.29 

32. Photosynthesis.29 

33. Transpiration.30 

34. Alg^.31 


IX 


































X 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


EXERCISE PAGE 

35. Bread Mold — Mucor.31 

36. Wood Destroying Fungi.32 

37. Wheat Rust.33 

38. Oat Smut.. •. . . 35 

39. Potato Scab. ' .35 

40. Yeast — Structure and Reproduction.35 

41. Yeast — Fermentation.36 

42. “Colds” Versus Good Health.37 

43. Bacteria — Structure.40 

44. Interrelations of the Organisms of a Hay Infusion . . 41 

45. The Growth of Bacteria.42 

46. Preservatives and Disinfectants.43 

47. The Effect of Heat Upon Bacteria. 44 

48. Organic Matter in Water.45 

49. The Removal of Sediment in Drinking Water.46 

50. The City Water Supply. •. . ..47 

51. A Survey of Unsanitary Conditions.48 

52. The Vertebrate Skeleton.49 

53. The Organs of the Chest and Abdomen of the Human 50 

54. The Throat and Nasal Passages of Man.51 

55. The Circulation of Man ..52 

56. The Effect of Exercise upon the Pulse Rate.53 

57. The Human Respiratory Organs.54 

58. Air in the Lungs.54 

59. The Action of the Ribs and the Diaphragm in Breathing 55 

60. Inherited and Acquired Characteristics ..56 

61. Variation.57 

62. The Amceba. 57 

63. The Paramecium.58 

64. The Fresh Water Hydra.60 

65. The Earthworm.61 

66. The Crayfish. 63 

67. The Locust (Grasshopper).66 

68. The May Beetle. 69 

69. The Squash Bug ..70 

70. The Cabbage Butterfly.71 

71. The Honeybee . 72 

72. The House Fly .. 72 

73. A Survey of Breeding Places of Flies and Mosquitoes 73 

74. Interrelations of Living Things.74 

75. Animal Reactions. 76 

76. Plant Reactions . 76 








































TABLE OF CONTENTS xi 

EXERCISE page 

77. The Sunfish.77 

78. The Frog.78 

79. The Metamorphosis op a Frog.81 

80. Reptiles .82 

81. A Bird.83 

82. A Mammal .83 

83. Interrelations of the Life about a Pond.84 

84. Interrelations of the Life in and about a Decaying 

Stump . 85 

85. Supplementary Problems .86 

I. The Development of the Lilac Bud.86 

II. The Development of the Flowers and Fruits of the 

Dandelion.87 

III. The Development of the Flower and Fruit of the 

Maple or Elm .88 

IV. The Behavior of the Robin and the Red-winged 

Blackbird.89 

V. Common Trees of the Vicinity.90 

VI. Common Shrubs of the Vicinity.91 

VII. Wild Flowers of the Vicinity.92 

VIII. Weeds of Lawns and Gardens of the Vicinity .... 92 

IX. Reptiles of the Vicinity.93 

X. Common Birds of the Vicinity.93 

XI. Smaller Wild Mammals of the Vicinity.93 

Appendix. . ..94 

I. A Test for Carbon Dioxide.94 

II. A Test for Oxygen .94 

III. Fehling’s Solution.• • • 94 

IV. Starch Paste.95 

V. Formalin as a Preservative.95 

Bibliography.97 

Index.99 






































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LABORATORY EXERCISES 

TO ACCOMPANY 

WAGGONER’S MODERN BIOLOGY 

EXERCISE 1 

GRASSES 

I. Field Study. Make a collection of grasses, both wild and 
cultivated. (Corn and the small grains are grasses.) Each speci¬ 
men should consist of an entire plant. (This collection may be 
made either as individual or as class work.) 

II. Laboratory Study. 

1. Identify as many as possible of the different specimens of 
grasses which have been collected. Attach a label to each. 

2. Structure, a. Roots. Note the characteristics of the roots 
of each. Observe especially those of the blue grass and timothy. 
h. Stems (Culms). Note the form and size of the stems of each. 
Determine which are hollow and which are filled with pith. Note 
the nodes, or joints, and the internodes, or the parts which are in¬ 
cluded between the joints, c. Leaves. Remove a leaf from the 
stem. Note the free part or blade. What is the arrangement of its 
veins? Note the sheath, the part which clasps the stem. What 
is the arrangement of the leaves with relation to one another? 
d. Flowers. Note the flowers. (See Waggoner, Fig. 12.) Where 
are the flowers borne? 


EXERCISE 2 

THE CORN PLANT 

I. Roots. What are the nature and extent of the roots? 

1. Find the vertical roots, which arise at or near the base of the 
stalk and penetrate to the deeper layers of soil. 

1 


2 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


2. Find the lateral roots, which arise from the base of the plant 
and, after descending a short way, extend out almost horizontally 
for twenty inches or more. 

3. Next note the brace roots, which appear from the nodes of 
the stalk just above the ground. What is the use of the brace 
roots? What is the time of their appearance? 

II. Stem. What is the form of the stem? Note the nodes and 
internodes. What is the nature of the surface of the stem? Study 
a cross section. How does the outer part differ from the inner? 
How does this arrangement affect the rigidity of the stalk? Ob¬ 
serve the numerous small fibers in the inner part or pith of the stem. 
These fibers are the fibrovascular bundles. 

III. Leaves. Note the arrangement, the size, and the number 
of the leaves. Where are the leaves attached to the stem? The 
lower part of the leaf is the sheath; the free upper part is the blade. 
Note the scale-like appendage at the division of the sheath and 
the blade. Note the midrib of the blade. How are the veins 
arranged with relation to the midrib? 

IV. Flowers. (See Waggoner, Fig. 4.) 

1. The Tassel. Where is the tassel? What are the chaffy 
structures on its branches? What do these produce? 

2. The Immature Ear. Remove the husks. Note their ar¬ 
rangement and structure. The corn kernels are formed from the 
flowers which are borne on the cob. What is the relation of the 

silks ” to the kernels? 

V. Make a drawing of a complete stalk of corn. 

(Note — Begin preparations for the growth of corn and bean 
seedlings in order to allow at least 15 days for this before the seed¬ 
lings are to be used. See Exercise 11.) 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


3 


EXERCISE 3 

THE SIMPLE FLOWER 

Use the radish or mustard blossom or that of a single geranium 
for this study. Use a hand lens freely in this exercise. 

I. Where is the flower borne on the plant? Is it borne in a 
cluster or singly? What are its shape, size, and color? 

II. Structure. What differences in the flower and the bud are 
evident? The stem of the flower, the peduncle, may have an en¬ 
larged end, the receptacle, to which the circles of parts are 
attached. (In some cases one or more green structures, somewhat 
leaf-hke in form, may be attached to the peduncle near the flowers. 
These are bracts.) 

1. The outside circle of parts situated upon the receptacle is 
the calyx. Each of these parts is a sepal. Note the number, shape, 
and color of the sepals. What is the function of the calyx? 

2. Next to the calyx is a circle of parts known as the corolla. 
Each of its parts is a petal. Note the number, shape, and color of 
each. Compare with the sepals. What is the function of the 
corolla? 

3. The next circle of parts is the circle of stamens. Note the 
number, the structure, and the arrangement of these. Each 
stamen is made up of the stalk, or filament, and of the enlarged tip, 
or anther. Observe the anther closely. What does it contain? 
This yellow powder is pollen. What is its use? 

4. The central structure of the flower is the pistil. What is its 
shape? Its position? The enlarged base is the ovary, the tip is the 
stigma, and the connecting part is the style. Do you find a sub¬ 
stance adhering to the stigma? What is it? What is pollination? 
Cut off the ovary. Does it contain more than one cavity? Crush 
the ovary. What is the nature of its contents? The tiny objects 
are ovules. What is their relation to seed development? What is 
the function of the stigma? The style? The ovary? 


4 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


III. Why is a flower an important structure? Which of the 
parts observed are the essential parts of the flower? Draw a 
flower, showing the parts. 

EXERCISE 4 (Supplementary) 

TYPES OF SIMPLE FLOWERS 

Use simple flowers, such as the snapdragon, petunia, morning- 
glory, sweet pea, and phlox. At least six different flowers should 
be used in this exercise. 

I. Note whether the flowers are borne singly or in clusters. If 
borne in a cluster, what are the characteristics of the cluster? 

II. Compare the floral parts of each flower with those of the 
simple flower which was first studied. Note any peculiar adapta¬ 
tion of parts or any specialization of structures which may be 
present. Determine if possible what relation, if any, each special¬ 
ized structure bears to pollination. 


EXERCISE 5 (Supplementary) 

A COMPOSITE FLOWER 

Use a sunflower, a cosmos, or some similar type of composite 
flower. 

I. Compare this “ flower with the simple flowers previously 
studied, in regard to its size, its position on the plant, etc. Note 
the parts which appear to resemble the floral parts of a simple 
flower. Remove some of the petal-like structures and some of the 
parts nearer the center. Examine the base of each. Note, on an 
older specimen, into what these parts may develop. What is each 
of these parts? What then is the entire flower ” of this plant? 

II. The inner parts are disk florets. The outer are ray florets. 
Study each, determining what floral parts are present. The sepal¬ 
like structures outside the florets are the bracts. The circle of the 
bracts is the involucre. What is the function of the involucre? 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


5 


III. Which disk florets blossom first? Where do the stamens 
first mature? When do the pistils mature? Explain the signifi¬ 
cance of these differences relative to pollination. 

EXERCISE 6 

POLLINATION, PART I 

This exercise may not only serve the purpose for which it is 
intended, but also be the means, incidentally, of making a collec¬ 
tion of insects for the insect study which occurs later in the year. 
(See Exercises 67 to 72.) The insect specimens which are so col¬ 
lected may be preserved in formalin. (See Appendix.) 

I. Field Study. The class may be divided into small groups, 
and each of these should be supplied with small bottles or cans 
and, if possible, with an insect net. Each group may visit a number 
of different flowering plants and one member of each group may 
act as its reporter. Collect any insects (six-legged animals) which 
are on or in the neighborhood of these plants. Make a careful 
note of the kind of place in which each was found. Bring to the 
laboratory the insects which you collect and specimens of the plants 
in the vicinity of which each insect was found. (To kill the in¬ 
sects, put them in a covered jar containing some cotton saturated 
with gasoline or chloroform.) 

II. Laboratory Study. 

1. Insects. Note the number of the main body divisions of 
the insects collected, the number of wings, and the number of legs. 
Look at the mouth parts of a bee, a butterfly, a fly, and a grass¬ 
hopper. What is the character of each? Why do insects visit 
flowers? 

2. Flowers. Note those which were collected. Is pollen pres¬ 
ent? Examine some grains of pollen which have been mounted 
under a microscope. What characteristics of the pollen make it 
possible for these grains to be distributed by insects? Draw several 
grains of pollen. Indicate from which plant each is obtained. 

(Note — Collect and preserve several dozen locusts (grass¬ 
hoppers) for use in Exercise 67). 


6 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 7 

POLLINATION, PART II 

I. Field Study. Work in small groups, each group choosing 
one of the following problems for study. 

1. Problem 1. Observe and record the number, time, and 
length of visits of any bees to a single flower or to a cluster of 
flowers. 

2. Problem 2. Follow a bee in its visits from flower to flower. 
Record the time and the length of each visit which it makes. 

II. Conference. Each group may report its observations. 
Each member of the class may record the results in tabulated form, 
as follows: 

Peoblem 1 


Group 

Visits of Bees 

Number 

Time 

Length 

1 

2 

3 




Total . 




Average. 





Pkoblem 2 


Group 

Visits of Bees 

Number of flowers 

Time 

Length 

1 

2 

3 




Total . 




Average.,. 





























FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


7 


Each one may also make a copy of the tabulations of the group 
to which he belonged. 

III. From your observations and from the results of the observa¬ 
tions of the class as a whole, what do you conclude to be the rela¬ 
tion of insects, especially that of bees, to the pollination of flowers? 


EXERCISE 8 

FRUITS 

I. Bean. Note the shape, the color, the markings, and the 
texture of a green bean pod. From what part of the plant has this 
pod developed? What floral parts are represented in the speci¬ 
men? (Have a flower for comparison, if possible.) Where are the 
calyx and corolla? Cut away one side of the pod so as to expose 
the seeds. Is the ovary simple or compound? Where are the seeds 
attached? What is the ‘‘ string ” of the bean pod? How does the 
food get to the seed from the parent plant? Break off a bean and 
note the scar. This is called the hilum. What causes its presence? 
As the bean ripens, what becomes of the food in the pod? Name 
several plants which bear the same type of fruit which we find in 
the bean. Draw an external and an internal view of the pod. 
Label all the parts. 

II. Apple. What floral structures are represented in the apple? 
Cut the apple midway between the blossom and stem ends. Note 
the position of the seeds and the markings and nature of the core 
and pulp. What is the arrangement of the seeds? Is this ovary 
simple or compound? Of what use may the pulp be to the wild 
apple ? Draw the interior view. Label the parts. 

III. Cocklebur. From what part of the flower did the outer 
prickly covering develop? Open the bur. Determine what other 
floral parts are represented. Is the ovary compound or simple? 
How many seeds do you find? (See Waggoner, Fig. 23.) 

IV. Study a number of other fruits such as the tomato, the 
peach, the pumpkin, the wheat kernel, the cranberry, the lemon or 


8 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


orange, and the capsule of the morning-glory. In each determine 
what floral parts are represented. 

V. What is a fruit? Pulpy fruits often remain hard and inedible 
until ripe. Why is this of advantage to the plant? Name several 
fruits that have not been mentioned in this exercise. 


EXERCISE 9 

SEED DISPERSAL 

This exercise may be assigned as individual work or may be used 
as the basis for a field trip of the entire class, 

I. Collect seeds which are disseminated by wind, by animals, 
and, if possible, by water and by mechanical means. 

II. List these in tabulated form, indicating the characteristics 
of each seed and the means of the dispersal of each. 


Name 

OP SEED 

Adaptations for 

DISPERSAL 

Agent op 

DISPERSAL 





III. Make a chart on which specimens illustrative of each type 
of dissemination are mounted and labeled. (The chart may be 
made as individual or class work.) 

IV. Remove the seeds of a single ragweed, pigweed, or some other 
weed which bears an abundance of seed. (If the ragweed is used, 
save the seeds for Exercise 61.) Count or estimate approximately 
the total number of seeds which have been borne by the plant. (If 
the seeds are very numerous, a small quantity may be measured or 
weighed and the seeds which compose it may be counted. Follow¬ 
ing this, the entire quantity may be measured or weighed. The 
total number of seeds may then be determined with considerable 
accuracy by multiplying the number of seeds in the small quantity 






FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


9 


by the number of times that this quantity is contained in the total 
quantity.) What does the number of seeds borne by a single plant 
indicate with regard to the necessity of seed dispersal? 

(Note — Put corn and bean seeds.to soak 24 hours preceding 
their use in Exercise 10. Make a collection of algae for Exercise 34.) 

EXERCISE 10 

THE SEEDS OF THE CORN AND BEAN 

Provide a sufficient supply of corn kernels and bean seeds so 
that each pupil may have at least two specimens of each. Soak 
half of the supply of each for one or two days previous to using. 

I. Structure of the Bean Seed. 

1. The Dry Seed. Note the size, the shape, and the color. Make 
a comparison of the length, the breadth, and the thickness of the 
seed. What is the nature of its covering? Note the position of the 
scar or hilum. What is its cause? Note the hole at the end of 
the hilum, the micropyle. What is the function of the micropyle? 

2. The Soaked Seed. Compare with the dry bean in size, in 
smoothness, and in the texture of its covering. Remove the coat. 
From what part of the ovule did it develop? Note the structure 
just within the micropyle. This is the hypocotyl. Its extreme tip 
is the radicle. The two halves are the cotyledons. Examine the 
cotyledons. Were both attached to the hypocotyl? Examine the 
one which you find attached. Note the tiny structure which lies 
between the cotyledons at the end of the hypocotyl. This is the 
plumule. (Use a lens.) Into what does the plumule develop? 
Note the relation of its parts to one another. 

3. The entire structure within the coats of the bean constitutes 
the embryo, or young plant. Make a drawing of the bean as it 
appears when opened. Show all its parts. 

II. Structure of Corn Kernel. 

1. Dry Kernel. Note the shape, the color, and the markings. 
Compare the ends of the kernel. What is the cause of the dent ”? 
Note the oval area on one side. 


10 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


2. Soaked Kernel. Compare the soaked kernel with the dry 
kernel in size and in general appearance. Note the change in the 
“ dent.’’ Explain. Cut the kernel lengthwise and, using a lens, 
note the spongy, shield-shaped portion within. This is the scutel- 
lum or cotyledon. On the cut surface of the spongy portion two 
tiny points appear — the plumule, pointing toward the “ dent ” 
end, and the radicle, pointing toward the sharp end. Note the 
sheaths which cover each point. The scutellum, the plumule, the 
radicle, and the sheaths constitute the embryo. The structure 
which almost surrounds the embryo is the endosperm. Note the 
origin of the horny and the starchy portions of the endosperm. 
What is the origin of the endosperm? Of what use is it to the 
growing plant? Make drawings of longitudinal and cross sections. 

III. What is a seed? 


EXERCISE 11 

CORN AND BEAN SEEDLINGS 

Begin preparations for this exercise 15 days before the seedlings 
are to be used. Make five plantings of corn and five of beans, 
allowing three days to elapse between each planting. LTse seeds 
of the same variety as those which were used in the previous 
exercise. Provide boxes of sand for this purpose. So place these 
boxes that sufficient heat and moisture may be supplied and fre¬ 
quent observations may be possible. Appoint individuals or com¬ 
mittees to assist in or to assume full responsibility for one or more 
plantings and the care of each. When ready for the final exercise, 
remove the seedlings from the sand and prepare exhibits of the 
various stages of growth. This may be done by placing one speci¬ 
men from each stage upon a large card in the order of development. 

I. Development of Bean Seedling. You will make five draw¬ 
ings. Place the first four on one page and allow a full page for 
No. 5. Label drawings, showing from what seed structure each 
part is developed. Study the questions below before making the 
drawings. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 11 

1. Stage 1. Note the break in the coat. What has caused this? 
(Stage 1 should show the radicle from J to J inches in length.) 

2. Stage 2. How has the radicle changed? What new struc¬ 
tures are present? 

3. Stage 3. Explain the use of the arch of the hypocotyl. 

4. Stage 4- Describe the changes which have occurred in this 
specimen since it was planted. 

5. Stage 5. Note that sand adheres to the roots above the tips. 
(This is due to the presence of root hairs. Exercise 18.) What 
is the cause of the shrinkage of the cotyledons? 

II. Development of Corn Seedling. Arrange and make your 
drawings as in Part I of this exercise. 

1. Stage 1. What is the first structure to emerge? Examine the 
interior and note any changes. (Stage 1 should show the radicle 
one half to one inch long.) 

2. Stage 2. (In the drawing the plumule should point toward 
the top of the page.) Examine the sheath of the plumule. Open 
it and note its contents. 

3. Stage 3. Note the beginnings of the root system. Examine 
the endosperm. 

4. Stage 4- Do the parts above the ground develop as rapidly 
as the roots? 

5. Stage 5. Note the change in the endosperm. What is the 
cause of this? How will the young plant get a new supply of food? 

III. What is germination? When does the germination of a 
seed begin? 

(Note — Put peas to soak. See Exercises 12 and 16.) 


EXERCISE 12 

CONDITIONS FAVORING THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS 

Plan a number of simple experiments by means of which it may 
be determined what conditions of moisture, temperature, and air 
are favorable to the germination of seeds. The following exercises 


12 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


are suggestive but they may be modified or others substituted for 
them if expedient. 

I. Temperature. In three separate boxes of moist sand plant 
seeds of the same kind. Place one box in a cool place (50° F.), one 
in a very warm place (120° F.), and the third in a moderately warm 
place (70° or 80° F.). Be sure that the preparation of the boxes 
and the care given them are the same in all particulars. (To pro¬ 
vide equal moisture in the sand more water will be required for 
the boxes in the warm place than for those in the cool.) Observe 
from day to day. In which case are the best results obtained so 
far as the proportion of seeds germinating and the rapidity of 
germination are concerned? 

II. Moisture. Plant seeds of the same kind in each of three 
dishes of sand. Be sure that all the conditions are the same, 
except that in one case no water shall be added; in another, the 
sand shall be sufficiently wet for water to be evident above the 
surface; and in the third, the sand shall be only moderately moist. 
Observe the results as in Part 1. 

III. Air. Fill two small glass bottles with soaked peas. Cover 
one bottle in such a way that there can be no exchange of the air 
inside with that outside. Leave the other uncovered. Observe 
the results. Explain. 


EXERCISE 13 

TESTS FOR NUTRIENTS 

I. Test for Starch. Place the same amount of water in each of 
two test tubes. To one add a little thin starch paste, and to each, 
a few drops of iodine solution. Note the result. The tubes are 
alike except in one particular. What is it? To what must the 
difference in results be attributed? What, then, is a test for 
starch as shown by this experiment? 

II. Test for Glucose. Add the same amount of water to each 
of two test tubes. To one add glucose. Now add Fehling’s solu- 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


13 


tion to each and boil. In what way do the contents of the two 
tubes differ? What causes the difference in results? What, then, 
is a test for the presence of glucose? (Some other sugars also re¬ 
duce Fehling’s solution but glucose is the one most commonly 
found in connection with plant and animal life.) 

III. Test for Cane Sugar. Prepare two test tubes with a solu¬ 
tion of cane sugar and water. Add some Fehling’s solution to one. 
Boil. What is the result? Is this a test for cane sugar? Explain. 
Add a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid to the other test tube which 
contains sugar solution. Boil. Then, while its contents are still 
hot, add to the test tube some Fehling’s solution. What is the 
result? What change did the acid cause with regard to the cane, 
sugar? What is a test for cane sugar? 

IV. Test for Oil. Place a drop of oil on paper. Warm the 
paper. What is the result? What then is a test for oil? (Oil may 
also be extracted with ether and obtained in a practically pure 
state. This is another test for oil.) 

V. Test for Protein. Add some of the white of egg (a protein 
substance) to a test tube of water. Boil. What is the result? 
Add some strong nitric acid to a similar preparation of egg albu¬ 
min. Warm this. What is the result? Pour off the acid which is 
in this tube. Rinse with water to remove the nitric acid. Then 
add some ammonia. What is the result? What are two tests for 
protein? 


EXERCISE 14 

NUTRIENTS STORED IN A SEED 
I. The Corn Kernel. 

1. Cut a soaked corn kernel through the center so that the 
embryo is exposed. Place the cut surface in iodine. Locate the 
starchy portion. How are you able to do this? Locate the yellow¬ 
ish portion. This is richer in protein. Is all of the protein in the 
embryo? Why can you not see the protein which is present in 
the endosperm? 


14 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


2. The instructor has scraped off and mounted some of the 
endosperm under the microscope. Examine it under both low and 
high power. What is the shape of the grains which you see? Are 
there markings on these grains? When a drop of iodine is placed 
at the edge of the cover glass, note the result. What, then, are 
these grains? Is any yellowish substance present? What is it? 

II. The Bean. Study some of the material which is scraped 
from the cotyledon of the bean seed and mounted under the micro¬ 
scope. Is much protein present here? When starch is as abundant 
as it is in the bean, why should the bean be looked upon as one of 
the protein foods? 

III. The Potato. Study a very thin shce of an Irish potato 
mounted under the microscope. Note the markings on the starch 
grains of the potato. Note that these grains are borne within cell 
walls. (See Waggoner, Page 35.) 

IV. How could you, under any circumstances, distinguish the 
starch which comes from corn, beans, or the Irish potato? In 
what parts of a plant may food be stored? What are the uses of 
the food which is so stored? 

V. Make drawings of the different types of starch grains which 
you have seen. 

VI. Arrange an exhibit of plants which illustrate various types 
of food storage. Attach to each a label bearing the name of the 
plant. Each member of the class may then determine in what way 
food is stored in each plant and may list in a tabulated form as 
follows: 


Name of plant 

Storage of Food 

In Stem 

In Root 

In Leaves 

Fruits 















FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


15 


EXERCISE 15 

THE ACTION OF ENZYMES — PTYALIN UPON STARCH 

What is an enzyme? (See Waggoner, Page 67.) 

I. Label three test tubes A, B, and C. Place in each of them 
5 cc. of water. Add 1 cc. of a well boiled starch paste to each. 
(See Appendix for directions for the paste.) Heat test tube A to the 
boiling point. As quickly as possible, add about 1 cc. of saliva to 
this tube and to test tube B. Keep the test tubes B and C for a 
few minutes at about blood heat. This may be done by warming 
them over a flame and holding them in the palm of the hand. 
Divide the contents of test tube A into two equal portions. Do 
the same with the test tubes B and C. 

II. Test one of the portions from test tube C for starch. Observe 
and explain the results. Test the other portion of tube C for a 
simple sugar. (The test for glucose is the test for simple or re¬ 
ducing sugars.) What results do you observe? Explain. 

III. Test one portion of test tube B for starch and, with Feh- 
ling’s solution, test the other for sugar. Note the results. What 
apparently has become of the starch? Why was this tube kept 
warm? Explain what has happened. 

IV. What is the enzyme in sahva? What is its effect upon 
starch? What happens to the flavor of an unsweetened cracker or 
a bite of bread when chewed slowly? How does the action of the 
enzyme upon starch help to explain the way in which the starch 
stored in grain becomes available for use m the growth of the plant 
during germination? Think of other cases in which such action 
occurs in plants. 

V. Test one of the portions of paste from test tube A for starch. 
Test the other for sugar with Fehling’s solution. What do the 
results show as to the effect of boiling upon ptyalin? Determine 
the effect of heat in general upon enzymes. (See Waggoner, Page 
69.) 


16 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 16 

RESPIRATION 

Place a half cup of soaked peas in a wide-mouthed eight ounce 
bottle. In another, place the same amount of dry peas. Cork both 
bottles tightly. Then allow them to stand in the room for forty- 
eight hours. At the end of this period test the air in each bottle 
for carbon dioxide. What is the result? Test for oxygen. (See 
Appendix.) What is the result? What is the origin of the carbon 
dioxide which you find in one bottle? What became of the oxygen 
in the same bottle? What change has been taking place in the 
peas in this bottle? For what purpose is oxygen needed in this 
process. What is respiration? (See Waggoner, Page 69.) Of 
what use is it to a plant? 

(Note —Prepare seeds for growth of root hairs. See Exercise 
18.) 


EXERCISE 17 

ROOTS 

The collection of the roots to be used in this exercise may be 
made by individuals or by the class as a whole. 

I. Field Study. Collect roots of the following types: 

1. Soil roots, a. Fibrous, the grasses, b. Storage, the sweet 
potato or dahlia, c. Woody, shrubs and trees, d. Tap, the rag¬ 
weed, carrot, parsnip, etc. 

2. Air roots. The trumpet vine {Tecoma radicans). 

3. Water roots. The duck weed, or other common floating 
water plants. 

II. Laboratory Study. Arrange an exhibit of the roots which 
are collected. Attach a label bearing the name to each. List and 
state briefly the characteristics of each. This may be done in a 
tabulated form as follows. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


17 


Name of 
Plant 

Roots 

Length of 
Life 

Where formed 

Kind 

Charaeteristies 

(Example) 

Carrot 

Soil 

Tap 

Fleshy with few fine, 
fibrous branch 

roots. 

Biennial 


III. Do you find nodes and internodes in any of the roots? 
What are the functions of roots? 


EXERCISE 18 

ROOT HAIRS 

Prepare the material for this exercise three or four days previous 
to the time when it is to be used. In Petri dishes place well 
moistened filter paper. Upon this paper place a number of radish, 
lettuce, and oat seeds. Cover and keep in a warm room under a 
bell jar. (This is to prevent drying.) The specimens can be used 
for the preliminary study without opening the Petri dishes. 

I. Examine the roots which have appeared from the seeds kept 
in the moist air of the Petri dish. What is the color of the roots? 
What other characteristics do you observe? From what part of 
the seeds do the roots appear? Study one of the roots which has 
been mounted under low power. Note the root cap. What is its 
nature? Can you see cells in the root? Note the downy growth 
which nearly covers these roots. This growth is made up of root 
hairs. What do you observe with regard to the number of the 
root hairs? Their size? Where are the root hairs located with 
reference to the root-tip? What is their relation to the surface cells? 
Compare in nature and in length the root hairs which are nearest 
the tip with those which are farther away. By examining the 
condition of the root hairs farthest from the root-tip, determine 
what finally becomes of the root hairs. Where in the root does 










18 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


growth take place? Locate the zone of root hairs ” with reference 
to the tip. (See Waggoner, Figs. 43, 45, and 46.) Why is it of 
great advantage to the plant that the root should grow at this 
point rather than farther back from the tip? Why does soil ad¬ 
here to young roots? 

Make a drawing of one of the roots. Show the ‘‘ zone of root 
hairs.’’ 

II. Soil water is taken into the plant through the root haiis. 
(The process of osmosis by which this transfer takes place will be 
discussed later. See Exercise 23.) The walls of the root hairs are 
thin. What is the advantage of this fact? Why does a plant wilt 
when it is transplanted? Why do we usually take up soil with a 
plant which is to be transplanted? During plant growth, how 
does the position of the zone of root hairs ” change in relation to 
the layers of soil? Of what advantage to the plant is this change? 


EXERCISE 19 

TRANSPLANTING SHRUBS AND TREES 

With your observations of root hairs in the laboratory and your 
study of the text (see Waggoner, Page 87) as a basis, make 
plans for transplanting some wild shrubs or trees from a neighbor¬ 
ing woodland to your school grounds. Then, if possible, put your 
plans into operation. Note carefully the soil and drainage condi¬ 
tions of the school grounds and select only those plants which grow 
naturally under similar conditions. Why are these precautions 
taken? In selecting the location for planting, take into considera¬ 
tion the size which the plant may later attain, the purpose which 
it is to serve in the school grounds — shade, decorative effect, 
shelter and food for birds, etc. — and any previous planting which 
has been made. 

Write to the American Tree Association, 1214 Sixteenth Street 
N. W., Washington, D. C., sending two cents return postage, and 
receive information regarding the planting of trees and their 
registration with the Association. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


19 


EXERCISE 20 

CELL STRUCTURE 

I. Plant cells. Examine a bit of banana pulp which has been 
mounted under the microscope. Note the tiny oval structures. 
These are cells. Can you distinguish them with the naked eye? 
Why? Of what is the flesh of the banana composed? Stain the 
cells by adding a drop of iodine. What is the effect? What does 
this indicate with regard to these grains? Do you find a cell wall? 
A nucleus? Make drawings of several cells showing the parts which 
are visible to you. 

II. Animal Cells. Examine some cells from the inside of the 
cheek which have been mounted under the microscope. (These 
may be obtained by gently scraping the cheek lining with the 
finger nail.) What is the color of these? Is there a definite cell 
wall present? Do you find any starch grains? How do these cells 
differ from those of the banana? What is the transparent granular 
substance of which the cell is composed? Note whether there is a 
tiny, apparently more solid, portion near the center of each cell. 
If so you are seeing the nucleus. The protoplasm outside the 
nucleus is the cytoplasm. Draw several of the cheek cells. Show 
the parts which were observed in each. (See Waggoner, Fig. 51.) 

III. What marked characteristic of plant cells is not found in 
animal cells? What is a cell? 


EXERCISE 21 

CELL DIVISION — MITOSIS 

For this exercise use models, or lantern or microscopic slides. 
Refer to the diagram (Waggoner, Fig. 52). 

I. The Resting Stage. Locate the following structures: the 
cell wall (or membrane), the cytoplasm, the nucleus. In the 
nucleus, locate the chromatin particles. (In the models, you may 


20 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


also note the centrosomes in the cytoplasm near the nucleus. In 
higher plants centrosomes do not appear.) 

II. Mitosis. Cells multiply by a process known as cell division 
or mitosis. Study the models or slides provided for the purpose of 
illustrating the various stages of this process. 

1. What is the first change in the nucleus? What happens soon 
to the ribbon-like chromatin strand? The segments of this strand 
are called chromosomes. 

2. Where do chromosomes tend to arrange themselves? What 
happens at the same time to the membrane surrounding the 
nucleus? 

3. When the chromosomes have become arranged in the center 
of the cell, observe the divisions in each. What structure appears 
at either side of the chromosomes? Describe this spindle. What 
successive changes occur in the location of the chromosomes? 

4. What becomes of the chromosomes when they have reached 
the poles, the points from which the spindle fibers radiate? What 
change is taking place during this process in the cell wall (or 
membrane)? 

5. How many chromosomes will each daughter cell have as 
compared with the number in the original cell? Why? Of what 
importance is this fact? 

(Note — Place cuttings of geraniums or some other house plant 
in water. See Exercise 28.) 

EXERCISE 22 

DIFFUSION 

Fill a tall, narrow glass jar with clear water. Into this drop a 
few large solid crystals of potassium permanganate. Allow this 
jar to remain undisturbed in a quiet place of uniform temperature 
for two or three days. Observe frequently. Note the distribution 
of the permanganate as indicated by the density of color. Where 
is the permanganate most abundant? Where is it least so? In 
what direction has it been possible for the molecules of the dis- 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


21 


solved substance to move most easily? Why will these molecules 
tend to become uniformly distributed after a time? (See Wag¬ 
goner, Fig. 53.) To some extent the distribution of the potassium 
permanganate has been due to diffusion, but it is probable that 
other influences also have affected it. What have these been? 
Define diffusion. 

EXERCISE 23 

OSMOSIS 

For this experiment, a small tube similar to a thistle tube can 
be made easily by heating a test tube in the center by means of a 
Bunsen flame. When the glass is soft, the central portion of the 
tube may be drawn out to the desired size. The larger end of 
the small thistle tube thus produced may then be covered with the 
membrane from the inside of an eggshell. This apparatus serves 
well to illustrate osmosis. If an ordinary thistle tube is used, it 
is more practicable to use as a membrane the wall of the bladder 
or the outer wall of the intestine of a freshly killed beef or hog. 
The covering of fresh sausages, thoroughly cleaned, is also satis¬ 
factory. Animal parchment paper, such as is used in the chemical 
laboratory, will serve the same purpose. (Diffusion shells, used in 
dialysis, may be employed if available.) 

I. With a rubber band fasten the membrane tightly over the 
thistle tube. Place in the thistle tube a solution which has been 
made by dissolving some glucose in water. Lower this thistle 
tube into a beaker of pure water. (Arrange the whole as in the 
diagram, see Waggoner, Fig. 54.) Mark on the tube the level of 
the solution which is within. Note at intervals any changes which 
may occur in the level of this solution. After two hours, test the 
water which is in the beaker for glucose. What is the result? 

II. What causes the change in the level of the solution in the 
tube? What does diffusion have to do with the change in the com¬ 
position of the water in the beaker? What factor enters into the 
process in this experiment that was not present in the experiment 
on diffusion? How do root hairs take in soil water? 


22 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


III. The membranes of plant cells are semipermeable. (See 
Waggoner, Page 104.) They prevent the concentrated contents 
from passing outward and thus are largely responsible for the 
condition known as turgor. (See Waggoner, Page 104.) Wash a 
slice of fresh red beet in cold water. What is the color of the water 
following this process? Has the beet lost any of its firmness? 
Place the beet in water and heat it. What do you now observe 
with regard to the color of the water? Does the character of the 
beet change? If so, how? What has been the effect of the heat 
upon the character of the protoplasmic membrane within the cell 
walls? 


EXERCISE 24 

SOILS 

I. Field Study. Provide yourselves with a trowel and a few 
dishes or large-mouthed bottles. 

1. Visit some small stream which flows down a gradually 
decreasing slope into a pool. Observe the arrangement of the soil 
particles which have been deposited after being carried by the 
water of the stream. As the current slackens, which particles, 
with relation to size, have been dropped first? Which last? Why? 
Do you find any sediment still clouding the water of the pool? 
That is, is it still muddy ”? Take this water to the laboratory 
for further study. 

2. Examine some blue grass sod. What is the relation of the 
roots to the soil? What causes the formation of sod What 
does the decay of the dead grass roots have to do with the addition 
of organic matter to the soil? By what other means may organic 
matter be added to the surface soil? Take a sample of soil con¬ 
taining organic matter. 

II. Laboratory Study. Study each sample of soil which the 
instructor has mounted under the low power of a microscope. 
Make a drawing of particles of each sample. From your observa¬ 
tions, discuss the composition of soil. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


23 


EXERCISE 25 

BUDS AND BRANCHES 

This work may be done either in the field or in the laboratory. 

I. Apple Branch. 

1. Examine the leafless branch of an apple tree. (A similar 
branch of a hickory or a tulip tree may be substituted if desired.) 
Locate the largest buds. Note the other buds. Locate the leaf 
scars. Note the size and shape of each. What is the general 
arrangement of the leaf scars on the branch? What is the position 
of the buds with reference to the leaf scars? Into what does a bud 
develop? A bud is formed in the axil of practically every leaf. 
Why do many of the twigs of a tree die? 

2. Terminal Bud. Remove from the terminal bud those scales 
which protect the undeveloped branch within. Note the scale 
scars which remain. Look along the branches for old scars of a 
similar nature. When were these scars formed? What do they 
indicate regarding the age of the specimen which you are studying? 
What is the effect upon the lateral buds if the terminal bud is 
removed? In the field, find branches upon which the terminal 
buds have been destroyed. What effect does topping usually have 
upon the shape of a tree? 

3. Structure of Stem. What is the nature of the surface, the 
color, and the texture of the bark? Separate the bark from the 
wood beneath. The layer which lies between the two is the growth 
layer or cambium. 

II. Lilac Twig. Note the character, the size, and the arrange¬ 
ment of the buds of the lilac. Examine a bud to determine the 
arrangement of the bud scales. Compare the bud with that of the 
apple. Cut lengthwise through the center of the lilac bud. De¬ 
termine what undeveloped parts of the next year’s stem are 
present. (See Waggoner, Page 121.) 

III. What is a bud? Where are buds formed? When are they 
formed? 


24 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 26 

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A STEM 

I. Sunflower or Pumpkin Stem. (Dicotyledonous Stems) 

1. Note on a portion of the stem the regular succession of nodes 
and internodes. 

2. Cut thin cross sections through the internodes. Using a lens 
when necessary, examine carefully. If present, study the pith in 
the central region. Note its character. Find the circle of rather 
oval or wedge-shaped structures which are situated about the 
central region. These are the fihrovascular bundles. (The narrow 
regions of tissue between these bundles give rise in perennial plants 
to the primary medullary rays. See Waggoner, Page 124.) Out¬ 
side of the circle of the fihrovascular bundles are the tissues which, 
taken together, make up the cortex. The outer skin-like layer is 
the epidermis. 

3. Fihrovascular Bundle. Examine a fibrovascular bundle under 
the lens. The inner part is the xylem; the outer, the phloem. 
Between the two is the region of the cambium. Remove from a 
longitudinal section one of the fihrovascular bundles. Examine it. 
Test its strength. 

4. Draw a cross section of the stem which was studied. 

II. Indian Corn. (Monocotyledonous Stem) 

1. Examine a thin transverse section. How do the fihrovascular 
bundles differ in position from those of the sun-fiower or pumpkin? 

2. Remove the epidermis and cortex of an Indian corn stem. 
Remove one of the fihrovascular bundles from the pith. Test its 
strength. What is the nature of the pith? 

III. What are the uses of the fihrovascular bundles? Of the 
bark? Why does a girdled tree die? What purposes do stems 
serve? 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


25 


EXERCISE 27 

A BLOCK OF OAK WOOD 

Obtain blocks of wood — oak, if possible — and cut so as to 
show cross, longitudinal, radial, and tangential sections. (See 
Waggoner, Fig. 67.) 

I. Examine a block. What was the position of the block in the 
log? Determine where the center of the log must have been with 
relation to this block. From a study of the figure in the text (see 
Waggoner, Page 129) determine what is meant by a cross or 
transverse^ a longitudinal, a radial, and a tangential section. Locate 
such sections with reference to the block which you have. 

II. Cross or Transverse Section. What are the position and 
the appearance of the medullary rays? Do all of these reach the 
center? How many sizes of rays do you find? What is the number 
of the circles of large pores? Where and when were these formed? 
When were the circles of compact wood formed? What is an 
annual ring? What is the approximate age of your specimen? 
Note whether the color of the wood is uniform. What causes the 
heartwood to be darker than the sapwoodf (See Waggoner, 
Page 128.) What is the number of the annual rings in the sap- 
wood? 

III. Radial Section. What are the appearance and the loca¬ 
tion of the rays in the radial section? Of the annual rings? Of 
the heart and sapwoods? Why is the heartwood more durable 
than sapwood? How is quarter-sawed oak cut? (See Waggoner, 
Page 130.) 

IV. Tangential Section. What is the appearance of the rays? 
Of the annual rings? What are the darker areas on this surface? 
Select an annual ring that is seen in all three sections and trace 
out the appearance in each. 

V. Make a drawing of the block which you have examined. 


26 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 28 

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 

The members of the class may bring specimens to be used in this 
exercise. Cuttings of some house plant such as a geranium should 
have been placed in water about two weeks previously. 

I. The Runner. Note one of the slender branches which is sent 
out from the main plant of the strawberry or common cinquefoil 
(the five finger Observe the position of the tip of such a 
runner. Does the runner have nodes? Does it have leaves? 
What is likely to occur where such a runner touches the ground? 
The runner is called a stolon. Name other plants which may be 
propagated by some similar method. 

II. The Underground Stem. 

1. Study the “ quack grass ” (couch, quitch, or quick grass — 
Agropyron repens). Dig up an entire plant. Where are the roots? 
Examine the underground stem. How does it differ from the roots? 
Note its branching and find nodes if nodes are present. What is 
the function of this underground stem? Why is the plant hard to 
kill out? Such an underground stem is called a rootstock or rhizome. 

2. Examine the tuber of an Irish potato. What is its shape? 
Its markings? Its covering? Where was it attached to the parent 
plant? Where are the “ eyes ” most numerous? What are the 
“ eyes ”? What is the arrangement of the eyes ”? What por¬ 
tion of the plant is represented in the tuber of the Irish potato? 
What is the function of the tuber? Of what use to the plant is the 
food which is stored in the tuber? What part of a potato do we 
plant in order to grow other potatoes? Why can we divide a tuber 
and grow several hills ” from it? Why is the seed of potatoes 
almost never used? Draw a tuber. 

III. Cuttings of geraniums or other house plants which have 
been “ rooted ” may be examined. Note the position of the roots 
on the stem. Draw. 

IV. In the propagation of plants, what are the advantages of 
the use of vegetative means as compared with the use of seeds? 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


27 


EXERCISE 29 

THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF 

I. Preliminary Laboratory Study. Examine a simple leaf, 
identifying the following structures: stipules (if present), petiole, 
blade, veins. Define each. (Refer to the text, if necessary. See 
Waggoner, Fig. 78.) Note the thickness of the leaf as compared 
with its length and breadth. Note the color. What is the rela¬ 
tion of the petiole to the veins and the branching of the veins? 
Draw the leaf. 

II. Field Study. Examine each of the following (or similar 
types), observing the position on the branch, the bud in the axil 
(the angle between the stem and the petiole of the leaf), and the 
form of each leaf: the apple or peach, the rose, walnut, hickory, 
box elder or ash, and the horse-chestnut. Determine which leaves 
are simple and which are compound. 

III. Laboratory Study. Use for this purpose the leaf of a 
geranium, live-for-ever, or Wandering Jew. Peel ofi’ the under 
surface layer — the epidermis — of the leaf. Examine with a lens. 
Study when mounted under the low and the high power of the 
compound microscope. Note the walls of the epidermal cells. 
Note the oval objects. These are stomates. Of how many cells 
is a stomate composed? These are guard cells. What is their 
position with reference to one another? Note the openings between 
them. What purpose is served by the stomates? Why is the wash¬ 
ing of leaves by rain or artificial means of value to the plant? Is 
there chlorophyll in the epidermis? In the guard cells? What is 
the function of chlorophyll? Draw some of this epidermis, showing 
epidermal cells and stomates. 

IV. What is a leaf? Why is it an expanded structure? Why 
does it need air and sunlight? What would happen to a plant if it 
were kept stripped of its leaves? Why? 


28 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 30 

LEAF ARRANGEMENT 

I. (Specimens may be studied in the field or may be brought 
into the laboratory.) Examine the branch of a maple tree. How 
many leaves do you find at each node? What is their arrangement 
with reference to each other? Examine the leaves of an apple 
tree. How does the arrangement differ from that of the maple 
leaves? (These are the more common forms of arrangement.) 
Find a plant in which three or more leaves appear at a single node. 

II. Observe the leaf arrangement of common shrubs, trees, and 
herbs. Tabulate as follows: 


Name op 

PLANT 

Arrangement 

Number of 
leaves at node 

Opposite, alternate, 
or whorled , 





III. Note the leaf arrangement in each of the plants observed 
which makes possible the exposure to sunlight of the largest extent 
of leaf surface. Note especially the ‘‘ rosette ” arrangement of 
the leaves of the dandelion and the common plantain. Note also 
some common vines such as the climbing roses, the ivy, the morn¬ 
ing glory, and the grape vine. 

IV. What is the function of a leaf? Of what advantage are 
the various arrangements of leaves? Why is it important that 
leaves be exposed to sunlight? 







FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


29 


EXERCISE 31 

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF 

Study prepared cross sections of leaves under a hand lens or the 
low power of a microscope. (If these are not available, study the 
diagram in the text. See Waggoner, Page 145.) 

I. Note the dark-covered oval areas which are scattered through 
the section, and determine the relation of these to the fibrovascular 
bundles of the petioles and veins. Of what are these bundles com¬ 
posed? Next note the upper and lower layers of cells. These 
constitute the epidermis. The outer walls of the epidermal cells 
are covered with cuticle. Below the epidermis note the layers of 
thin-walled, elongated cells which are closely joined together. 
This is the palisade tissue. Note the chloroplasts, the numerous 
green bodies in these cells. Below the palisade tissue note the 
region of thin-walled cells and numerous air spaces. This is the 
spongy tissue. In the lower epidermis note the stomates. 

II. Make a drawing of the cross section, labeling each of the 
structures shown. 

EXERCISE 32 

PHOTOSYNTHESIS 

1. 1. Place a green water plant (green alga or “ water moss ”) 
in a jar or beaker of water. Fill a test tube with water and invert 
the test tube and a funnel over the plant. (See Waggoner, Fig. 86.) - 
Into what does any gas pass which arises from the plant? Place 
the apparatus in the sunlight and observe. Note the bubbles 
which appear. From what do they come? Now shade the plant 
and observe any changes which occur. 

2. Place the plant in the light and leave it for several hours. 
Then test the gas in the test tube for carbon dioxide and for oxygen. 
(See Appendix.) Use the lime water test first. Why? Which 
is present, carbon dioxide or oxygen? What is its origin? Where 
did the chemical elements come from which were used in the process 
of photosynthesis? 


30 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


II. Early in the morning, carefully cover one half of the leaf of 
a growing plant with tin foil. After allowing the plant to stand 
in the sunlight for several hours remove the tin foil. Carefully 
warm over a flame some 95% alcohol, the ordinary commercial 
form, and place the leaf in the alcohol so that the chlorophyll may 
be dissolved out of it. Next test the leaf for starch. Do you find 
starch in both the part which was covered and that which was 
not? Explain. Under what conditions is starch manufactured? 
What is photosynthesis? Compare respiration and photosyn¬ 
thesis. (See Waggoner, Fig. 88.) 

III. Temporary Storage of Starch in Leaves. In the latter 
part of the afternoon, dissolve out the chlorophyll of a leaf of a 
geranium plant with alcohol. Then test the leaf for starch. Re¬ 
peat in the early morning with another leaf from the same plant. 
Compare the results. Explain any differences in the amounts of 
starch found in each case. 

EXERCISE 33 

TRANSPIRATION 

For this experiment use a rather small but vigorous potted 
geranium. The plant should be one with a single stem. 

I. Water the plant well. Cover the pot with heavy paraffined 
paper or with sheet rubber — the inner tube of an automobile tire 
may be used — and secure this covering tightly about the gera¬ 
nium stem. Place the pot under a bell jar. (See Waggoner, Figs. 
89 and 90.) Observe frequently. What soon appears on the inner 
surface of the bell jar? What is its origin? What purpose does 
the paper or rubber covering of the pot serve? The cool bell jar? 

II. Weigh the potted plant after the covering is placed over the 
pot. Repeat at intervals of an hour throughout the day. Record 
the results. What must be the cause of any change in weight 
which occurs? What is transpiration? 

(Note — Make preparations for Exercise 35 several days before 
the materials are needed for class use.) 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


31 


EXERCISE 34 

ALG^ 

The algae for this exercise should be collected before cold 
weather begins or obtained from some biological supply house. 

I. Spirogyra (Green Algae). 

1. In what kind of location does spirogyra grow? What have 
you observed about its abundance? When in the year is this 
abundance greatest? What is the appearance of this alga to the 
naked eye? Its color? To the presence of what substance is 
this color to be attributed? 

2. Study a few strands of spirogyra which have been mounted 
under the low power and others which have been mounted under 
the high power of the microscope. Of what is a single filament of 
spirogyra composed? What is the shape of one of the cells of 
which the filament is composed? (See Waggoner, Fig. 98.) Where 
do you find the chlorophyll in the cell? How many bands do you 
see? Describe their position in the cell. 

II. Protococcus. Where is this alga found? Explain why it is 
more abundant on the north than on the other sides of tree trunks. 
Study some of the Protococcus which has been mounted under the 
microscope. What is the color? How many cells seem to be 
joined together? Make a series of drawings showing different 
groups of the cells of the Protococcus. 

EXERCISE 35 

BREAD MOLD —MUCOR 

After moistening pieces of bread in water, place them in dishes 
which have close fitting covers. To be certain that mold spores 
will be present, shake a duster over the bread before covering. 
Keep the dishes in a warm room for two or three days. 

I. Note the appearance from day to day of the mold which 
grows upon the moist bread. This mold is probably Mucor or a 
nearly related type. What is its appearance to the naked eye? 


32 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


What is the color of the young growth? What is the color of the 
older parts? What is the cause of this color? Where are the black 
objects? How does the fluffy white mass change as it becomes old? 
Note the odor. Why are organic materials which are closed up 
liable to mold readily? 

II. Study some of the mold which has been mounted under the 
microscope. Each thread is a hypha. The whole network of 
hyphce is the mycelium. (Examine with a lens; then examine 
under low power.) What is the nature of the hyphse? Are they 
divided into cells? Are they branched? Compare the hyphse 
(rhizoids) which are beneath the surface of the bread with those 
which are above. 

III. Examine the fruiting body under high power. This is a 
sporangium. Compare the color of the old and young sporangia. 
Why are the older ones so dark? Note the abundance and size 
of the spores which are present. Where are they produced? Ex¬ 
amine a spore case. Estimate the number of spores in a sporan¬ 
gium and the number of sporangia on a growth of mold. 

IV. Draw a mold plant. Show the hyphse, rhizoids, and 
sporangia. Draw a mature sporangium as you see it under high 
power, and also several separate spores. (See Waggoner, Figs. 103 
and 104.) 

EXERCISE 36 

WOOD-DESTROYING FUNGI 

Much of this exercise should be worked out on a field trip by the 
class. If a class trip is impracticable, the work may be done by 
individuals. Specimens may be collected on such a trip which can 
be used for further study in the laboratory. (All the work may 
be done in the laboratory if the weather prevents field work. In 
this case, specimens collected earlier in the year can be used.) 

I. Field Study. 

1. Observe various trees upon which the shelf-like fungous 
growths appear. Where upon the trees are these growths located? 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


33 


What part of the fungi are the shelf-like structures? Do you find 
any mycelium? Where? What is the nature of the wood where 
it is present? 

2. Note the shape, the size, the structure, and the attachment 
of the fruiting body. Where are the spores produced? Do you 
find spores? What is their nature? Their abundance? How are 
they scattered? How do the spores find entrance into trees? 
What becomes of most of the spores? What is the value to the 
fungus of the abundance of these spores? 

3. If possible, observe trees which show treatment for wounds. 
Why should wounds in valuable trees be protected? How may 
this be done? How are wounds healed? Note several which have 
healed. What is the danger of leaving a stub of a branch on a 
tree? When removing branches, what precautions should be 
observed? (See Waggoner, Page 179.) What is meant by heart 
rot ”? What does a fruiting body upon an apparently healthy 
tree indicate? 

II. Laboratory Study. With a lens study some of the wood in 
which the mycelium is present. Note the character of the myce¬ 
lium. Also study a tiny'portion of a fruiting body which has been 
mounted under the low power of a microscope. Make drawings 
showing what you see. 

EXERCISE 37 

WHEAT RUST 

Specimens of the various stages of wheat rust (black stem rust) 
should be collected in summer. (These may be found in late 
summer upon volunteer oats, wheat stubble, or rye straw or 
obtained from a biological supply company.) 

I. The Red Rust Stage. Study wheat plants showing the red 
rust stage. What part of the plant is affected? Examine the red 
structures with a lens. What causes the red color? What is the 
age of the wheat plants upon which this stage occurs? (See 
Waggoner, Figs. 113 and 114.) Make drawings as directed by the 
instructor. 


34 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


II. The Black Rust Stage. Study wheat plants showing the 
black rust stage. What part of the plant is affected by this stage? 
With a lens determine what causes the color of the black areas. 
Compare the age of the wheat plant affected by black rust with 
that of the wheat affected by red rust. (See Waggoner, Figs. 113 
and 114.) Make drawings as directed by the instructor. 

III. The Cluster Cup Stage on the Barberry. Study leaves of 
the common barberry which are affected by the cluster cup stage. 
What is the appearance of the spots upon these leaves? On which 
side of a leaf do you find these spots? Study under a lens. What 
is the relation of this stage to the other stages? Why is the com¬ 
plete eradication of the common barberry advised by the United 
States Department of Agriculture? (See Waggoner, Fig. 115.) 
Make drawings as directed by the instructor. 

IV. The Distinction between the Common and the Japanese 
Barberry. Compare specimens of the common barberry with the 
Japanese barberry as to size and form of leaves, character of 
thorns, and arrangement of fruits. (See The Black Stem Rust and 
the Barberry, E. C. Stakman, Pub. of U. .S. Dept, of Agriculture, 
No. 796, Page 18, or the Yearbook of the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, 
1918, Page 77 ff.) Draw specimens of each. The common bar¬ 
berry is the one which acts as a host to wheat rust. The Japanese 
barberry is a useful shrub which has no relation to this disease of 
wheat and which should never be confused with the common 
barberry. (See Waggoner, Fig. 116.) 

V. Find out if possible what has been done in your state towards 
the eradication of the common barberry. Inquire of your county 
agricultural advisor or of others interested in the growing of wheat 
and oats. 

VI. Design a poster which may be effective in calling attention 
to the need of the eradication of the common barberry. 

(Note — Prepare the yeast mixture for Exercise 40 the day 
preceding that on which it is to be used.) 


FOR WAGGONER'S BIOLOGY 


35 


EXERCISE 38 (Supplementary) 

OAT SMUT 

Use specimens collected during the summer. (Obtain these 
when the oats are heading.) 

I. Examine oat plants which are affected by oat smut. Where 
is the smut found? When does it appear? What part of the plant 
is affected by it? In what way does it injure the plant? How is 
oat smut spread? Why is the prevention of a recurrence of this 
smut a comparatively simple matter? (See Waggoner, Page 189 
and Fig. 117.) 

II. Study some of the spores which have been mounted under 
the microscope. Note their size, color, and shape. Draw several 
spores. Draw a spikelet of the infected oats. 


EXERCISE 39 (Supplementary) 

POTATO SCAB 

The pupils may bring specimens which show this disease. 

I. Examine a potato tuber which is affected by the scab. What 
injury does this scab do to the potato? Cut sections through the 
potato. How deep are the diseased spots? Is the interior affected? 
Is there any evidence that other organisms may have had a part in 
the resulting injuries? Do you find spores? How is the disease 
transmitted and how can this transmission be prevented? (See 
Waggoner, Page 191.) 

II. Draw an exterior view of a scabby potato and also a section 
of a potato showing the nature of the scab injury in the interior. 

EXERCISE 40 

YEAST — STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION 

I. Place a cake of dry yeast in water and allow to stand over 
night. Study the resulting mixture. Note the odor and appear- 


36 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


ance. What causes the murky appearance? What else is present 
in the yeast cake and hence in this mixture? What is the use 
of this starch? 

II. Structure. Study a drop of the mixture which has been 
mounted under high power. Note the size, shape, and color of the 
yeast plants. Observe their structure. (See Waggoner, Fig. 122.) 
Is protoplasm present? What is its nature? Note the large semi¬ 
transparent object within the cell. This is a vacuole. Make a 
drawing of a yeast plant showing its structures. 

III. Reproduction. What is the explanation of the several 
types of cell clusters? What becomes of the small “ huds ” (Dis¬ 
cussion by instructor or reference to text. Page 194.) What other 
form of reproduction may occur in yeasts? (Discussion.) Show 
by a series of drawings the manner in which yeast multiplies by 
budding. 


EXERCISE 41 

YEAST — FERMENTATION 

Use the yeast mixture which was prepared for the preceding 
exercise or a similar one. 

Number five fermentation or test tubes. In each, place 5 cc. of 
this mixture. To No. 1, add nothing; to No. 2, glucose; to No. 3, 
cane sugar; to No. 4, starch; and to No. 5, glucose. Boil No. 5. 
Fill each with water and allow to stand in a warm room. At the 
end of several hours observe the results. Note the amount of gas 
in No. 2. The amount of gas present indicates the amount of 
growth of the yeast plants. This gas may be tested for the presence 
of O and CO 2 . What is the gas? What is its source? Smell the 
contents. What else besides CO 2 is present? What has caused 
these changes in the contents of this tube? The process is known 
as alcoholic fermentation. Compare the amount of fermentation 
in the other tubes with that found in No. 2. (Compare with 
Waggoner, Fig. 125.) What substances ferment? What is the 
effect of heat upon fermentation? Explain. What bearing does 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


37 


this fact have upon the canning of fruit? What relation does the 
yeast plant have to bread raising? Why does cider become 
“ hard ”? 

EXERCISE 42 

“COLDS’" VERSUS GOOD HEALTH 

The outline suggested below m^y be used as the basis of a study 
of some of the health conditions during the winter months. It 
will probably require observations covering a period of from six 
to eight weeks. 

I. Problems. 

1. Determine how many members of your class have had no 
“ colds ” or other troubles of the respiratory tract since the open¬ 
ing of school. Of those who have been so affected, how many have 
lost time from school? The U. S. Public Health Service, in in¬ 
vestigating the occurrence of colds, discovered that during a 
period of six months only ten per cent of a large group of people 
had no colds and that the average annual rate was three and seven- 
tenths colds per year. Suppose you keep a record of such condi¬ 
tions in your class. To do this, you may keep a daily chart for a 
period of six weeks. Plan such a chart. 

The following is suggestive: 


Date 

Duration of “colds” or other 

DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY TRACT 

Causes 

Treatments 

USED 

Confinement to 
home (days) 

Remaining period of 
affection (days) 







2. From local and state newspapers make a collection of clip¬ 
pings which refer to health conditions during the period in which 










38 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


the health charts are being kept. If possible find some reference 
in your text which bears upon each. Paste the clippings upon 
binder paper such as is used in your laboratory note book. At the 
side of each clipping copy the reference from the text book and 
give the page on which it is found. 

3. A. Make a collection of advertisements of patent medi¬ 
cines ” for colds and respiratory troubles as you find them in 
newspapers, periodicals, etc., and of labels and wrappings from 
bottles containing such nostrums. Sort these clippings and labels 
into the following groups: 

a. So-called cure-alls.’’ 

h. Advertisements in which no statements of a definite nature 
are made. 

c. Advertisements which contain definite statements regarding 
specific diseases. 

d. Advertisements advising not only the use of the nostrum 
but also some other treatment such as massage or the assistance 
of a physician. Mount these labels and clippings in the same way 
as you did those referring to health conditions. If Volumes I and 
II of Nostrums and Quackery, published by the American Medical 
Association, are available, find references to as many as possible 
of the nostrums for which you have advertisements. Make a 
note of the findings regarding such nostrums. 

B. Make a comparison of well known periodicals and of news¬ 
papers with regard to the number and types of ‘‘ patent medicines ” 
advertising in each. Determine what factors are responsible for 
the differences which you discover. 

C. Secure a copy of the Pure Food and Drugs Act ” and copy 
those clauses in it which refer to the regulation of the labeling of 
nostrums. Likewise copy those parts of the Postal Fraud Act ” 
which regulate in any way the use of the mail for such purposes as 
the advertisement of nostrums. Examine your labels and copies 
of advertisements to find whether either of these acts may have 
influenced their content in any way. (Copies of these acts may be 
obtained by addressing the Superintendent of Documents, 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


39 


Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. The Pure Food 
and Drugs Act,” 8th revision (1922), costs five cents; the “Postal 
Fraud Act,” to be found in “ Postal Laws and Regulations of the 
U. S.,” one dollar.) 

D. Why do “ styles ” in “ patent medicines ” change from year 
to year? If all the statements made by the manufacturers of 
“ patent medicines ” were true, why should there be so many 
colds and other diseases? What is your conclusion as to the real 
reason for the manufacture of so many nostrums? 

II. Summaries and Conclusions. 

1. At the end of the period used for this project, summarize the 
individual records of the class as follows: (Committees of pupils 
may do this work if so desired.) 


Date 

No. OF PUPILS AFFECTED BY “ COLDS ” AND 
OTHER RESPIRATORY DISEASES 

Confined to home 

Not confined to home 




Total ... 




Each pupil may copy this table. What is the average number of 
days of complete disability (confinement to the home) per pupil? 
Of partial disability? Estimate the equivalent of the former in 
money value by determining the wages which might have been 
earned in an equal period of time in some occupation engaged in 
by boys and girls of your age. 

2. List the supposed causes to which may be attributed the 
colds, etc., of the various pupils. Rearrange in a series according 
to frequency. From your study of the text you have found that 
without the presence of germs such diseases as colds could not 








40 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


occur, and that when the body resistance is low these germs secure 
a foothold most easily. Which of the “ causes ’’ that you have 
listed may have in some way lowered your body resistance? Which 
of them could have been avoided? What is essential to the main¬ 
tenance of a high degree of body resistance? Compare your state¬ 
ment of conditions with those conditions under which the athlete 
lives while in ‘‘ training.” 

3. List the treatments which were used as you did the causes.” 
Which of these treatments are in line with the most advanced 
scientific ideas regarding disease? Underhne them. From your 
study of “ patent medicines ” would you expect the patient who 
uses them to recover because of them or in spite of them? Why is 
the advice of a thoroughly trained physician desirable if drugs are 
to be used in the treatment of disease? 

4. Review the statements regarding disease which you have 
found in your text. Either summarize briefly those which you are 
willing to accept and which you expect to apply in your own case 
or write a short paper on the topic, “ How I can help myself to be 
a healthy individual.” 

III. Arrange all the material which you have collected or written 
in connection with this project in an orderly manner and bind it 
into booklet form. Appropriate covers may be designed for the 
booklet if so desired. 

EXERCISE 43 

BACTERIA — STRUCTURE 

I. Note the murky or cloudy appearance of water in which 
some substance has been decaying. To what is this appearance 
to be attributed? Examine a drop of the water which has been 
mounted under a high power of the microscope. Can you see any 
tiny objects, either moving or quiet? Describe any which you 
may see. 

II. Method of Staining Bacteria. 

1. Place a drop of water which contains the decaying substance 
upon a clean cover glass. Allow this to dry. Then pass the cover 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


41 


glass rapidly through a Bunsen flame three times. This flame will 
kill and “ fix ” the bacteria. Next place a drop of gentian violet 
stain upon the cover glass. (A concentrated solution of purple 
aniline dye and denatured alcohol has been used as a stain with 
satisfactory results.) Let the cover glass stand for a few minutes. 
Then wash by allowing gently flowing water to pass over the 
cover glass. After this place the cover glass, bacteria side down, 
upon a clean slide. 

2. Repeat the process, using a scraping from the teeth which is 
mixed with a drop of water. 

III. The instructor will mount the prepared slides under the 
high power of the microscope. When this has been done you may 
study them. How many shapes of bacteria do you find in each 
case? Do these vary in size? Compare the dimensions of the 
bacteria to the diameter of a hair which has been placed under the 
cover glass. Why are the bacteria seen more easily in the stained 
slides than in the unstained ones? Make drawings of the various 
types and sizes of bacteria which you see. (See Waggoner, Figs. 
127 and 128.) 

IV. What are evidences of the presence of bacteria in any sub¬ 
stance? 


EXERCISE 44 

INTERRELATIONS OF THE ORGANISMS 
OF A HAY INFUSION 

I. Preparation. Use timothy hay (dried) and water from a 
pond. Cut the hay into small pieces and allow a handful of it to 
soak for a few days in a quart of the pond water. Keep the infu¬ 
sion in a warm room. 

II. Study of Organisms in the Infusion. Study samples of the 
water which have been mounted under the microscope. Do this 
two or three times each week. Note the character of any living 
organisms which may be visible. Note the changes which take 


42 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


place with reference to the kinds of organisms which are present 
in the water. Make drawings of the organisms observed each time. 
Date each set of drawings. 

(Note — This infusion may be kept as a basis for work later in 
the year. See Exercises 62 and 63.) 

EXERCISE 45 

THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA 

I. Sterilization of Utensils. Prepare a number of test tubes, a 
glass funnel, a flask, and fifteen Petri dishes. To do this, wash the 
glassware clean and sterilize it in a hot air sterilizer held at a 
temperature of 170° C. (340° F.) for one hour. (A common gas 
oven serves well for a hot air sterilizer. A large double cooker or 
steamer may be employed if hot water is to be used for steriliza¬ 
tion. (See Waggoner, Page 213.) 

II. Preparation of a Culture Medium. To prepare a medium 
for the culture of bacteria, dissolve 15 gm. of agar-agar which has 
been cut into small pieces in 1000 cc. of water. Then add to this 
5 gm. of extract of beef. Boil for one-half an hour. The mixture 
should be slightly alkaline. To make it so, add just enough baking 
soda to cause red litmus paper to turn blue. Filter the medium 
into a flask through cotton placed in the funnel. Pour about 
10 cc. of the medium into each of the prepared test tubes. (This 
should fill them about two inches deep.) Insert a stopper of cotton 
in each and steam for one-half hour in a common steamer such as 
that referred to above. Repeat this steaming twice at intervals 
of twenty-four hours. 

III. Relation of Dust to Growth of Bacteria. Number the 
sterile Petri dishes from one to fifteen. In a quiet room, pour the 
medium from the test tubes into the Petri dishes. Avoid all un¬ 
necessary handling. No. 1 is to be kept as a check or control. Why? 
For one minute each, expose the medium in the following Petri 
dishes to the air: No. 2, in a quiet class room; No. 3, in the same 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


43 


room immediately following sweeping; No. 4, in a quiet labora¬ 
tory; No. 5, in the same laboratory after sweeping; No. 6, in the 
corridor when unoccupied; No. 7, in the same corridor during the 
passing of classes; No. 8, outside the window of an upper story; 
No. 9, on a doorstep. Brush the hair over No. 10; cough over 
No. 11; sneeze over No. 12; lay the fingers on the agar of No. 13; 
after washing the hands thoroughly, repeat with No. 14; shake a 
wrap over No. 15. Allow these Petri dishes to remain in an oven 
held at 85° F. to 95° F.- or in a warm room. Examine after two 
or three days. Whitish patches which develop upon the agar 
medium are colonies of bacteria. How do the sizes and general 
appearance of the colonies in the various dishes compare? Explain 
the results. Record in a tabulated form as follows: 


No. OF DISH 

Place or condition 

OF EXPOSURE 

No. OF COLONIES 
RESULTING 

Explanation 

OF RESULTS 






What is your conclusion as to the relation of dust and bacteria? 
Explain the necessity for care in the preparation of the materials 
and glassware which were used in this exercise. 


EXERCISE 46 

PRESERVATIVES AND DISINFECTANTS 

Prepare some clear beef bouillon, a hay infusion, or some other 
liquid that clouds as a result of bacterial action. Number two sets 
of test tubes from one to ten each. Fill each tube one-third full of 
the medium. Another tube should be filled in the same manner 
and kept as a control.” 

I. Preservatives. Add the following substances to the first set 
of test tubes: 







44 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


To No. 1, I cc. of salt; to No. 2, 3 cc. of salt; to No. 3, 1 cc. of 
sugar; to No. 4, 4 cc. of sugar; to No. 5, 4 cc. of vinegar; to No. 6, 
2 cc. of powdered boric acid; to No. 7, 1 drop of commercial forma¬ 
lin; to No. 8, 4 drops of commercial formalin. Keep the tubes in 
a warm room for two days. At the end of this period, observe the 
odor and appearance of the contents of each tube. What indicates 
bacterial action? Compare the bacterial action in each to that in 
the “ control ” tube. Which substances added to the medium 
have been most effective in preventing bacterial action? Which 
are required in large amounts? Which are harmless? Which 
are dangerous? Where is each used? What is a preservative? 

II. Disinfectants. To the second set of test tubes add the 
following chemicals: 

To No. 1, one drop of five per cent mercuric chloride solution; 
to No. 2, 6 drops of the same mercuric chloride solution; to No. 3, 
1 drop of five per cent carbolic acid solution; to No. 4, 6 drops 
of the same carbolic acid solution; to No. 5, 1 drop of tincture of 
iodine; to No. 6, 6 drops of tincture of iodine; to No. 7, J cc. of 
slaked hme solution; to No. 8, 1 cc. of slaked hme; to No. 9, 1 
drop of four per cent chloride of lime solution; to No. 10, 5 drops 
of the same chloride of hme solution. Set the tubes aside in a warm 
place for two days. Then observe the bacterial growth in each. 
Compare the tubes with the control ’’ and with one another. 
Which is the clearest? Does the amount of a disinfectant need to 
be considered? Which of these disinfectants are widely used? 
Discuss the use of each. Define “ disinfectant.’’ How does a 
disinfectant differ from a preservative? 


EXERCISE 47 

THE EFFECT OF HEAT UPON BACTERIA 

Make an infusion by steeping some chopped timothy hay in 
water. Allow this to cool and then add to it some faucet water in 
which the hay was previously washed. The solution should then 
be filtered until it is clear. 


45 


;FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 

I. Fill each of eight test tubes one-third full of the solution. 
Allow No. 1 to stand in an oven at 90° F. (about 32° C.), No. 2, 
in a room at about 65° F., and No. 3, in a refrigerator at about 
45° F. Let the three tubes remain under these conditions for 48 
hours or until No. 1 becomes cloudy. Close Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 
with cotton plugs. Place No. 4 in water held at 60° C. for 5 minutes; 
No. 5 in water held at 70° C. for five minutes; No. 6 in water at 
80° C. for five minutes; No. 7 in water held at 90° C. for five 
minutes; and No. 8 in boiling water for five minutes. Then allow 
these five to stand in the oven at 90° F. (about 32° C.). What 
general difference do you observe in these eight tubes after forty- 
eight hours? What does a cloudy appearance indicate? What is 
the use of the hay? Why was the cool wash water added in the 
beginning? Why were the tubes of the last group closed with 
cotton? (If no oven and refrigerator are available for this experi¬ 
ment, approximate results may be obtained in winter by placing 
the tubes in the furnace room and in a cold room. 

II. What do the first three tubes show in regard to the effect of 
heat upon the growth of bacteria? Which clouded first? Why? 
Explain the differences observed in the last group of tubes. What 
is the effect of high temperature upon bacteria? Why do sub¬ 
stances decay more rapidly in warm than in cooler weather? In 
warm weather, why does food keep better in the ice chest than out 
of it? Why does surface water become stagnant in warm weather? 


EXERCISE 48 

ORGANIC MATTER IN WATER 

I. Procure samples of distilled, faucet, well, cistern, pond, and 
dirty surface water, placing each in a separate bottle. Fill each 
bottle one-half full and label it. Shake the bottles before studying 
their contents. Note any odor which is present. Explain the 
presence of such odors, if possible. Cork the bottles and place in 
an oven held at 90° F. (or in a furnace room) for two or more days. 
At the end of this period examine the samples again. Note the 


46 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


color, odor, and general appearance. Explain the differences 
which you find in any sample after it has stood in the oven, as 
compared with its former characteristics. 

II. Place 4 cc. of distilled water in each of two clean test tubes. 
To one add a small amount of organic matter. Next add a drop of 
potassium permanganate solution to each tube. (This may be 
made by adding a crystal of potassium permanganate to sufficient 
water to make a bright purple solution.) Gently heat the tubes. 
Note any change in color. How did the contents of the two tubes 
differ before adding the solution? What then has caused the 
difference in results? State clearly the test for organic matter as 
shown by this experiment. 

III. Test each of the samples in Part I for organic matter. In 
which is the most present? Has this organic matter any relation 
to the odor and appearance of the sample? Is there any relation 
between the amount of organic matter and the results which you 
observed after allowing the samples to stand for two days? Is 
organic matter itself likely to be very injurious to those who drink 
the water which contains it? What does its presence indicate as 
to the source of the water which contains it? Why then is water 
containing organic matter objectionable? 

IV. What is organic matter? What is its source? 


EXERCISE 49 

THE REMOVAL OF SEDIMENT IN 
DRINKING WATER 

I. Settling. Allow water from five sources — a well, a cistern, 
a faucet, a pond, and a muddy pool — to stand over night in well 
cleaned deep glass vessels. At the end of this period, compare the 
amounts of sediment. Is the water in all the vessels equally clear? 
Explain the differences which you observe. What is the nature 
of the sediment in each? Examine some which has been mounted 
under a microscope. 


47 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 

II. Filtration. Prepare three filters as follows: 

No. 1. Place filter paper in a glass funnel. 

No. 2. Place fine sand three inches thick in a funnel. (Stop 
the opening with cotton.) 

No. 3. Place powdered bone charcoal in a funnel as in No. 2. 

Filter muddy water through each of these. Is there any differ¬ 
ence in the results? Which is the best method, judging from the 
filtered specimens? Add some coloring to the water or use colored 
cistern water, and repeat the filtering. Is the coloring removed in 
any case? 

III. Chemical Removal of Sediment. Add a little alum solu¬ 
tion to each of several samples of muddy pond or creek water. 
Allow to stand for some time. Note the results. Filter through 
filter paper. Again note the results. What is the use of the alum? 

IV. Does settling water free it from all impurities? Does it 
help? Why? Is this method used in your city water system? Is 
any one of the above filtration methods in use in this system? If 
so, how does it help? Is alum added to the water in your city? 
Will the settling, filtration, and addition of alum remove all danger 
from the use of the water? Explain. What else is needed in addi¬ 
tion to the removal of the sediment in the water? 


EXERCISE 50 

THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 

A class trip to the city water system may be made if the system 
is one which provides for the purification of water from a lake, a 
river, or other stream. 

I. The Reservoir. What is the source of the water which finds 
its wav into the reservoir? Is there evidence of the presence of any 
springs which may furnish a part of the water? Does the ap¬ 
pearance of the water undergo any change while in the reservoir? 
Does the change occur slowly or rapidly? Note living plants or 


48 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


animals which may be in or about the water. If sediment is 
present in the water, what is its nature? What is the source of 
this sediment? Does water readily become clear? What are pos¬ 
sible sources of pollution? Could the untreated water which is in 
the reservoir be used with safety? Explain. At what season of 
the year is the danger from the use of such water greatest? Why? 

II. The Settling Basins. How does the water get into these 
basins? What is their purpose? Note their size and structure. 
Examine the water which they contain. Note its character and 
appearance. What chemicals are used to purify this water? How 
are they added to the water? What is the use of each? Note 
especially the effect of the alum, if used. Does it remain in the 
water which is to be pumped through the city? What evidence 
is there that the chloride of lime or liquid chlorine is effective? 

III. From the standpoint of health, of what value to a city is a 
water system like the one you are studying? Write a brief paper 
upon this topic. 

EXERCISE 51 

A SURVEY OF UNSANITARY CONDITIONS 

I. Field Work. Choose for this survey town blocks or other 
definite areas which appear to be below a desirable standard so far 
as sanitary conditions are concerned. The class may work in 
groups or as a whole. All observations are, of necessity, to be 
made from streets, alleys, or other public highways. Each member 
of the class may prepare a plan of the area studied. Show on it 
the location and size of all buildings, alleys, passageways, etc. 
locate on it all stables, cesspools, outbuildings, garbage cans, piles 
of garbage, tin cans, and other rubbish, hog pens, rotting vegeta¬ 
bles, standing water, etc. Locate any wells or cisterns and note 
the probable drainage conditions surrounding each. 

II. Conference. Discuss each source of danger found. Ex¬ 
plain wh}^ it endangers the public health. Point out the remedy 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


49 


in each case as far as it is possible to do. Each member of the 
class may then write a brief report of the discussion. If it seems 
advisable, the best of these reports may be published in the 
school or local newspaper. 


EXERCISE 52 (Supplementary) 

THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON 

Use a skeleton or chart. If neither is available, use the illustra¬ 
tions from text books. Study the skeleton of the human; then, 
if possible, compare it with that of the fish, the frog, a reptile, a 
bird, and another mammal, such as the cat or rabbit (hare). 

I. Note the general character of each of the parts of the skele¬ 
ton — the skull, the trunk, and the limbs. What are the Uses of 
the bones in each of these parts? 

II. The Skull. What are the character and general form of 
these bones? How are they joined to one another? Where, on the 
body, are blows most likely to fall? Of what significance are the 
shape and character of the skull with regard to such blows? Note 
the bones of the face, the jaws, and the nose. How are the eyes 
protected? How is the lower jaw attached to the skull? 

III. The Trunk. Note the number, the arrangement, and the 
position of the ribs. How are the ribs attached to the breastbone? 
To the backbone? How many vertebrae make up the spinal 
column? What is the use of the spinal column? Note the projec¬ 
tions on the vertebrae. Of what use are they? Where is the spinal 
cord located? How is it protected? What is the relation of the 
spinal column to the skull? Note the “ cushions ” between the 
vertebrae. Of what value are they? By what means is the spinal 
column supported at its base? 

IV. The Limbs. What is the character of the large bones of the 
arm and of the leg? Name the three largest bones of each. What is 
the nature of the shoulder blades? How are they attached to the 


50 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


trunk? What is the character of the collar-bones? Why are they 
so easily broken? In the human skeleton study the arch of the 
foot. Upon what does the weight of the body rest? What is the 
use of this arrangement? What has happened when the condition 
known as flat foot ” is present? 

V. What purposes, in relation to the body, does the skeleton 
serve? 

VI. If it has been possible to compare the skeletons of two or 
more different groups of vertebrates, what similarities have you 
found with regard to the skull? The vertebral column? The 
limbs (appendages)? 


EXERCISE 53 

THE ORGANS OF THE CHEST AND ABDOMEN 
OF THE HUMAN 

I. The chief regions of the human body are the head and trunk. 
The upper part of the trunk cavity is the chest) the lower part is 
the abdomen. (Use the manikin or chart. If neither is available, 
refer to the diagram in the text. See Waggoner, Fig. 140.) Note 
the character of the chest walls; the thickness. Compare the walls 
of the abdomen with those of the chest. How do the internal 
organs lie in the body cavity with relation to one another? What 
are the character and shape of the diaphragm, the partition which 
separates the chest and abdomen? What is its position with rela¬ 
tion to the body walls? To what is it attached? Specify the loca¬ 
tion on your own body. 

II. The Chest. What organs lie in the chek cavity? What is 
their relation to one another? To the diaphragm? Note the 
gullet, the esophagus, which enters from the throat region. In 
front of this is the trachea, whose branches lead to the lungs. Note 
the aorta, the artery which curves upward and back from the 
heart. Follow its course. 

III. The Abdomen. Note the liver, the large organ toward the 
right and just beneath the diaphragm. Below this, and to the 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


51 


left, is the stomach. Note the hile duct which passes from the liver 
to the small intestine just below the stomach. Beneath the stom¬ 
ach and lying against it is the pancreas. Trace its duct to the 
place where it enters the small intestine. Note the coiled small 
intestine. Find the projection of the front of the upper part of 
the hip-bone. The junction of the small and large intestines occurs 
near here. Note the appendix, just below this junction. What is 
its nature? From this junction the large part, known as the ascend¬ 
ing colon, passes upward; then, as the transverse colon, it crosses 
the front part of the abdomen about at the waist line; then, as 
the descending colon, it passes downward to the lower abdominal 
cavity. Locate on your own body the region of the transverse 
colon. Note the kidneys at the back of the abdominal cavity. 
What is their shape? 


EXERCISE 54 

THE THROAT AND NASAL PASSAGES OF MAN 

Close the mouth. Explore its interior with the tongue. What is 
the size of the mouth cavity? Is the roof of the mouth hard all 
the way back? Open the mouth. By aid of a mirror, observe the 
character of the mouth lining. Then note the position of the 
following structures — the lips, the teeth, the tongue, the hard 
palate, and the soft palate. Examine your nose. Where does the 
solid bone begin? What is the nature of its tip? What is a 
broken nose ”? Locate the nasal passages. What is the nature 
of their linings? With the aid of a manikin or chart, determine 
the relation of the air passage and the food passage. (If neither 
manikin nor chart is available use the diagram in the text; see 
Waggoner, Figs. 137 and 139.) The cavity back of the mouth, 
into which the nasal cavity opens, is the pharynx. Next note the 
air passage beyond the pharynx. Study the front part of your 
neck. In this region can you feel the larynx, which is situated at 
the upper end of the windpipe? lYhat seems to be the nature of 
its walls? Look at a manikin or chart. Observe the position of the 
vocal cords. 


52 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


Swallow. Note the sound which occurs. Explain this sound. 
How does food in its passage to the gullet, which lies beyond the 
pharynx, cross over the opening of the windpipe? Locate the 
epiglottis. How are substances, being swallowed, prevented from 
entering the nasal cavity? What happens when you laugh just 
as you swallow? 

Note carefully the location of the tonsils and the region where 
enlarged adenoids often develop. 


EXERCISE 55 

THE CIRCULATION OF MAN 

I. On a manikin or a chart locate the heart with reference to the 
lungs, the ribs, and the breastbone. Think where it is in your 
own body. Place your hand over the location where the heart 
touches the chest wall. What are the shape and size of the heart? 
In the figure in the text (see Waggoner, Figs. 147 and 149) note 
the divisions of the heart — the right and left auricles and the 
right and left ventricles. Find the relation of the pulmonary artery 
and pulmonary veins to heart and lungs, respectively. Locate 
the aorta, the great artery leaving the left ventricle. Trace its 
course. Find the caval veins which return the blood to the right 
auricle. Note carefully the distribution of blood vessels in the 
lungs and in the various parts of the digestive system. 

II. Note the distribution of veins on your arm and hand. Hold 
your arm on a level with your shoulder or higher. Again note the 
veins. Next allow the arm to hang at your side. What difference 
is there in the appearance of the veins under these three conditions? 
Explain. Compress some spot on the arm or wrist. What is the 
result? Rub the forearm toward the fingers. What is the result? 
What is the position of the veins with regard to the skin? Explain 
the results of the above experiments. How does the movement of 
the muscles affect the veins which are near them? How does 
muscular action aid the circulation of the blood? On the manikin 
or chart determine the positions of veins and arteries as related 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


53 


to one another and to the body surface. Locate the pulse in your 
body, a. at the wrist, h. just in front of the ear, and c. below the 
angle of the jaw. What is the pulse? 

EXERCISE 56 

THE EFFECT OF EXERCISE UPON THE PULSE RATE 

I. Sit quietly for a time. Locate the pulse in the wrist or in the 
neck. Count the pulsations. Note the number in one minute. 
Record and average these as suggested below. 

II. Stand erect. Count the pulsations as in Part I. Record. 
Is it a matter of effort to stand? Locate the main muscles which 
are involved. What differences are evident between the results in 
Part I and those in Part II? Explain the cause of these. 

III. Rise and extend the arms above the head. Sit. Repeat in 
an energetic manner for a number of times. While still standing, 
count the pulsations as in the preceding exercises. Record and 
average as in Parts I and II. What happens with regard to the 
breathing rate? What is the effect of exercise upon the heart 
beat? Explain the differences between the results obtained in 
this part and those obtained in I and II. 

IV. What is the effect of exercise upon the pulse rate? Why 
does the treatment of a disease of the heart usually call for 
inactivity on the part of a patient? 

Tabular form to be used in recording results: 


Number of 
Pupil 

Pulsations per Minute , 

While sitting 
quietly 

While standing 

While 

exercising 

1 




2 




3 




4 




5 




Average .... 
















54 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 57 

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY ORGANS 

Use a manikin or skeleton if possible. If these are not available, 
use a chart or the diagram in the text. 

I. The Nasal Passages. Review the position of the throat and 
nasal passages and their relation to each other. (See Exercise 54.) 

II. The Lungs. What are the position, number, and shape of 
the lungs? What is their relation to the chest wall? To the dia¬ 
phragm? Find the position of one of your collar-bones. What is 
the relation of the apex of the lung to this bone? Find the lower 
ribs. Note the relative positions of the lungs and the lower 
ribs. Study the relation of the trachea to the lungs. Note the 
distribution of its branches to the parts of the lungs. What is the 
use of the trachea? Where does air enter the lungs? Note 
the distribution of the blood vessels of the lungs. Why is this 
significant? 


EXERCISE 58 

AIR IN THE LUNGS 

I. Note and estimate the amount of air which is drawn in and 
which is exhaled in each breath. Breathe naturally. The air 
which is inhaled under this condition is tidal air. After taking in 
the tidal air, draw in as much more air as you can. This extra air 
is complciueutal air. Compare the quantity of the two volumes. 
After-breathing out the tidal air, force out as much more as you 
can. This last is reserve air. Compare the amount of this with 
the other volumes. Residual air, about equal in quantity to the 
reserve air, remains in the lungs and cannot be forced out. 

The diagram in the text (see Waggoner, Fig. 153) represents the 
relative volumes of air which are used by an adult of average size. 

II. What part of the lung capacity is taken up by the tidal air? 
What portion of the lungs is filled with fresh air in quiet breathing? 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


55 


What is the effect of deep breathing upon the amount of fresh air 
in the lungs? What is the relation of such breathing to vigorous 
exercise? To singing? 

III. Test the complemental air for carbon dioxide by blowing it 
through clear limewater. Do the same with the reserve air. Com¬ 
pare and explain the results. Compare with results shown in 
Waggoner, Fig. 154. What do these results indicate with relation 
to the habit of deep breathing? 


EXERCISE 59 

THE ACTION OF THE RIBS AND THE 
DIAPHRAGM IN BREATHING 

I. Stand erect and take in several deep breaths. Note the 
movement of the breastbone. How far and in what direction does 
it move? Measure the chest before taking a breath. Measure 
while it is expanded. What is the difference? Note the protru¬ 
sion of the abdominal walls during breathing. What effect would 
tight clothing about the waist have upon the ability to breathe 
deeply? 

II. On the skeleton or the illustration in the text (see Waggoner, 
Fig. 140) note the position of the ribs when they are at rest. Where 
are the ribs jointed? Take in a deep breath and note the move¬ 
ment of the ribs during its inhalation. Where are the muscles 
which raise the ribs? How are the ribs attached to the breast¬ 
bone? What dimension of the chest is increased by raising the 
ribs? Why does air pass out of the lungs without effort? 

III. On the manikin, note the position of the diaphragm when 
the chest is not expanded. What happens when the diaphragm 
contracts? Why does it press down upon the abdominal organs? 
What makes the abdominal walls protrude? Give another reason 
why the breath passes out of the lungs without effort. Why, also, 
does the elasticity of the lungs help to explain this lack of effort? 


56 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


IV. When the chest cavity is increased in size by the raising of 
the ribs and the contraction of the diaphragm, what causes the 
outer air to enter this cavity? Explain fully. 


EXERCISE 60 

INHERITED AND ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS 

Let each individual make his own lists according to the follow¬ 
ing directions. Be definite in listing these characteristics. For 
example — brown eyes rather than color of eyes. 

I. List the influences of your environment which you feel cer¬ 
tain have had a marked effect upon your life. 

II. List some of your personal characteristics which seem to 
have been inherited; some which you believe you have acquired; 
some which seem to be the result both of inheritance and of en¬ 
vironment. 

III. List some characteristics which you do not have and which 
you believe that no environmental influence could enable you to 
acquire. 

IV. Look over all the hereditary characteristics which you have 
mentioned. Check all those which appear frequently in your 
family. 

V. What statements which are made in your text does each of 
these lists illustrate? 

After each indivudal list has been completed, the class may be 
interested in discussing a number of them. (Among the char¬ 
acteristics which may be included in this study are eye color, color 
and character of hair, shape of nose, height, weight, peculiar mark¬ 
ings, special ability along certain lines, occupational tendencies, 
and temperament.) 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


57 


EXERCISE 61 

VARIATION 

Use materials which were collected for this purpose during the 
fall months. The points of the great ragweed seeds (see Exercise 
9, Part IV) or the notches of ehn leaves may be counted. If no 
preparations have been made in advance for this exercise, the pairs 
of immature leaves in the buds of lilacs may be counted. (Care 
must be used in avoiding any confusion of outer bud scales with 
the leaves which they enclose.) 

I. Divide the ragweed seeds or elm leaves among the members 
of the class. Let each person separate them into piles and place 
all those having the same number of points or notches in one pile. 
Mark each pile with a slip of paper bearing this number. How 
many specimens are present in each pile? Write this on the slip 
for the pile. 

II. When the individual counts are made, total the results for 
the class. List the resulting numbers in order. What is the least 
number of points found? How many specimens have this number? 
What is the highest number found? How many specimens have 
this number? What number occurred most frequently? Make a 
graph showing the results. 

III. Give other examples of variation which you have observed. 

(Note — See Exercise 74. This may be begun in early spring.) 


EXERCISE 62 

THE AMCEBA 

Study pictures of the amoeba found on charts, on lantern slides, 
and in text book illustrations. Then study specimens present in a 
drop of water which has been mounted under the microscope. 

I. Form. Note the general appearance of the amoeba. What 
do you observe regarding its form? Does this form change? 


58 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


Make four or five drawings as rapidly as possible to show the 
changes which occur in its form. 

II. Structure. Study the protoplasm of the body. Why is an 
amoeba a difficult animal to see? Note that the outer layer is 
almost perfectly transparent and free from granules. This is 
the ectoplasm. Compare with this the granular central mass, the 
endoplasm. Find one or more clear spaces. These are vacuoles. 
Watch them closely. The one which disappears is probably the 
contractile vacuole. The others are food vacuoles. These sometimes 
contain foreign bodies which have been taken in for food. Find 
the nucleus. This is a round body which is denser than the rest 
of the endoplasm and appears to be slightly darker. 

III. Movement. As the animal moves, observe the formation 
of the false feet {pseudopodia). Do these appear in any regular 
manner? Watch the flowing movement of the granular part of 
the amoeba. How is this movement related to the formation of 
the false feet? 

IV. Food Getting. Add a little powdered carmine to a drop of 
water containing amoebae. Under the high power, note whether 
any of the particles of carmine are taken in by the amoebae. 
Describe the process if you see it. (Powdered carbon may be used 
instead of carmine.) 

EXERCISE 63 (Supplementary) 

THE PARAMECIUM 

The paramecium, like the amoeba, is a one-celled animal, but 
it is a free-swimming organism which is further advanced in the 
scale of life than the amoeba. It is found in fresh water ponds and 
streams. In the hay infusion previously prepared, you may find a 
scum which, when closely examined, is seen to be composed of 
many minute white objects, barely visible to the naked eye. These 
are probably paramecia. Can you explain the presence of these 
animals upon the surface of the infusion? Study the paramecia in 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


59 


a drop of water mounted under the microscope. (Note — By 
mixing a drop of egg white with the drop of water containing the 
paramecia, the movements of the animals may be retarded so as 
to facilitate a study of them.) 

I. Note the shape. Does it seem to be constant? Note the 
fine hairlike structures which cover the body and which move 
rapidly as the animal swims about. These are cilia. Note the 
end which is usually foremost. This is the anterior end. How 
does this end differ from the posterior end? Upon one side of the 
body is a groove. This is the oral groove, which leads just beyond 
the center to the mouth opening. Beyond this opening is a short 
funnel-shaped gullet. The mouth is on the ventral surface. The 
body of the animal consists of protoplasm. This is made up of a 
thick fixed layer, the ectoplasm, and a more fluid granular mass, 
the endoplasm. A thin covering, the pellicle, consists of non- 
hving material. There are two contractile vacuoles. These lie in 
the dorsal region toward either end. Watch them closely. Note 
the radiating canals which surround each vacuole and empty into 
it. Note the food vacuoles which form at the interior end of the 
gullet. In what direction do they move from this position? Make 
a drawing, showing the structures which you have identified. (See 
Waggoner, Fig. 167.) 

If specially prepared stained slides are available, note the large, 
oval, deeply stained mass near the center. This is the macronu¬ 
cleus. In a depression in one side of the macronucleus lies the 
micronucleus, a very small rounded body. 

II. Activities of the Paramecium. When a little powdered 
carmine or (carbon) has been added to the drop of water in which a 
paramecium is present, note how the carmine grains are driven by 
the cilia. Watch grains as they pass down the gullet. Determine 
the process by which food enters the animal. (The grains of car¬ 
mine will enter with the food.) Watch the animal as it swims. Is 
the same side of the body always uppermost? Explain. 


60 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 64 

A FRESH WATER HYDRA 

The hydras are found in fresh water ponds and streams. Look 
for them on the under sides of submerged leaves and stems. 
Living ones may be brought into the laboratory and kept for ob¬ 
servation. Prepared microscopic and lantern slides will facilitate 
the study of these animals. 

I. Observe the hving animals which you have in the laboratory. 
Note their positions in the water. How long is the main part, the 
body, of the animal? Note the tentacles which you find branching 
out from one end. Compare the length of these with that of the 
body. Observe any movements of the animals. By what part 
of the body do they attach themselves to objects? Where are 
these animals most abundant? Determine the reason for this 
distribution. 

II. Place one of the hydras in a little water in a shallow dish. 
Examine it with a lens. Note the cylindrical form of the body. 
Note the basal part by which it attaches itself to objects. At the 
opposite end find the position of the mouth. This is surrounded by 
the tentacles. What are the arrangement and number of the ten¬ 
tacles? Within the body is the digestive cavity. The instructor 
may introduce a number of small crustaceans, such as Cyclops, 
into the water. Observe what happens when the hydra comes in 
contact with one of them. How does a hydra get its food? Draw 
the hydra as you see it. (See Waggoner, Fig. 175.) 

III. Examine a hydra which has been mounted under low power. 
(The cover glass should be supported so that the animal will not 
be crushed.) Observe that the body wall, as well as the wall of 
the tentacles, consists of two layers of cells, the ectoderm, or outer 
layer, and the endoderm, or inner layer. A. very thin gelatinous 
layer lies between. The body of the hydra is similar to a hollow, 
double-walled tube. The tentacles are merely hollow extensions 
of the tube, somewhat as the fingers of a glove are extensions of the 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


61 


rest of the glove. In the ectoderm you will observe nematocysts, 
ovoid structures which contain stinging threads. If a hydra is 
mounted with the cover glass resting directly upon it, a light tap 
on the cover glass will crush the animal. This will free many of the 
nematocysts. The threads in some will be discharged and can be 
examined. 


EXERCISE 65 

THE EARTHWORM 

I. The Living Earthworm. Live earthworms may be brought 
into the laboratory and kept in a box of the soil in which they were 
found. Let members of the class remove earthworms from the soil, 
noting any difficulty which may be encountered in the process. 
Place a specimen on white paper. Note the direction and manner 
of its movement. Which is the anterior end? Note the slender 
dark structure running lengthwise within the body. This shows 
through the dorsal surface and is the doTsol blood vessel. Note its 
contractions. Try to draw an earthworm backward over the paper. 
Compare the dorsal and ventral surfaces by rubbing lightly with 
the finger. Experiment to find out whether the animal is sensitive 
to sound, light, food, etc. Touch the anterior end. Touch the 
posterior end. Which is the more sensitive? 

II. External Structure. (Preserved specimens may be used, 
if desired.) Note the general shape of the body. How does its 
thickness compare with its length? The body is regularly divided 
into segments by grooves extending around it. At the anterior end 
is the protruding upper lip or prostomium. This is not a true seg¬ 
ment. Some distance back of the prostomium is a somewhat 
swollen region, the clitellum. (Glands in the clitellum secrete a 
cocoon which collects both the egg and the sperm cells. Within 
this structure fertilization and the development of the egg and the 
young earthworm occur.) In the anterior part of the body there 
are thirty-seven segments when the clitellum and all the segments 
anterior to it are counted. How many do you find posterior to the 
clitellum? The mouth is on the ventral surface just behind the 


62 LABORATORY EXERCISES 

prostomium. The aniis is at the posterior end of the body. Com¬ 
pare the dorsal and ventral sides of the body. How did you find 
that they differed in the living specimen? With a lens examine 
the small bristles which lie along each side of the ventral surface. 
What is their use? Note carefully the covering of the earthworm. 
What is its nature? Draw an earthworm, showing its external 
structures. 

III. Internal Structure. (Use prepared museum dissections or 
specimens previously dissected and pinned out by the instructor. 
Compare with Waggoner, Fig. 178.) 

1. Note how the body cavity, the coelom, is divided by thin 
walls into chambers which correspond to the segments shown 
externally. 

2. The Digestive System. The digestive tube runs straight 
through the body from the mouth to the anus. The mouth cavity 
is a thin-walled, sac-shaped structure into which the mouth opens. 
This cavity leads into the pharynx, a region with muscular walls. 
Back of the pharynx is the narrow esophagus. Next come the large 
thin-walled crop and, following it, the thick-walled, muscular 
grinding organ, the gizzard. The remainder of the digestive tube 
is the intestine. Make a drawing of the digestive system, labeling 
its parts. 

3. The Circulatory System. Along the dorsal surface of the 
digestive canal is a slender dark tube, the dorsal blood vessel. In 
the anterior region this divides into branches, the '' hearts,” which 
pass around the digestive system to the ventral blood vessels. These 

hearts ” contract and send the blood into the ventral vessel, 
where it flows in a posterior direction. The contractions of the 
dorsal blood vessel send the blood within it in an anterior direc¬ 
tion. The dorsal and ventral blood vessels and the hearts ” 
constitute the main part of the circulatory system. Make a dia¬ 
gram showing the general plan of the circulation. 

4. The Respiratory System. The exchange of gases necessary 
in respiration occurs throughout the entire body surface. There 
are no special organs for this process. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


63 


5. The Excretory System, A pair of excretory organs, “ kid¬ 
neys ” {nephridia), are present in the ventral part of the coelom 
in each segment, except in a few at either end. The kidneys ” 
are very minute. They begin in one segment as funnel-shaped 
structures and continue into the next as looped tubes. In the 
second segment each tube opens to the outside through the ven¬ 
tral body surface. With a lens you may be able to locate these 
structures. 

6. The Nervous System. Beneath the digestive tube on the 
floor of the body cavity lies the white thread-hke nerve cord. An 
enlargement, a ganglion, may be found in each segment. At the 
anterior end, the nerve cord divides and passes around the pharynx, 
forming two gangha on the dorsal side. These ganglia are the so- 
called ‘‘ brain ” of the earthworm. 

7. The Reproductive System. The earthworm is hermaph¬ 
roditic; that is, it has separate male and female sex organs and 
both are present in each individual. The male organs, which can 
be easily located, are three pairs of large white masses at the sides 
of and above the esophagus in segments nine to twelve. The 
female sex organs, the ovaries, are located in the fourteenth seg¬ 
ment and, because of their small size, are more difficult to see. 
The ducts of both the male and female sex organs open to the 
exterior. 


EXERCISE 66 (Supplementary) 

THE CRAYFISH 

I. ,The Living Crayfish. Observe a living crayfish which has 
been placed in an aquarium or pan. By means of what append¬ 
ages and movements does it make its way through the water? 
Place the animal on a table. Repeat your observations. Place 
a ruler or stick near a crayfish. How does it grasp the object? 
Return the crayfish to the water, When it is quiet, drop some 
coloring matter, such as ink, in the water near the place where 
the legs join the body. Note where the colored fluid is drawn m 
and where it is thrown off, The grayfish breathes by means of 


64 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


gills. How does this explain what you have seen? Think of 
experiments which you might try in order to test the taste, smell, 
hearing, sight, and feehng of this animal. Recall observations 
which you have previously made regarding the habitat and ac¬ 
tivities of the crayfish. Watch them whenever the opportunity 
is afforded you while on field trips, fishing trips, etc. 

II. External Structure. 

1. The crayfish belongs to the same great group of animals as 
the insects. In the crayfish we have an example of high specializa¬ 
tion. This is shown in the widely varying functions of many 
separate structures of similar origin. The appendages, which 
show such specialization, are of similar origin. If they are ex¬ 
amined closely, a marked hkeness in number and arrangement of 
segments is found. Structures of similar origin and general plan 
are known as homologous structures. Where is the skeleton of the 
crayfish? It is called the exoskeleton. What is the nature of this 
covering? How is it formed? How does molting enable this 
animal to accommodate its covering to its size? The body of the 
crayfish is divided into the cephalothorax and the abdomen. How 
many segments are there in the abdomen? The crayfish’s body 
is divided into twenty-one segments. Locate as many of these as 
possible. With the exception of the first and last, each segment 
bears a pair of appendages. 

2. The Cephalothorax. The cephalothorax is divided by a 
tran'sverse groove into two regions — the head and the thorax. 
The exoskeleton of the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the cephalo¬ 
thorax is known as the carapace. Begin your study at the an¬ 
terior end. Note the sharp beak, the rostrum, which lies between 
the eye-stalks. What are the size and position of the eyes and how 
are they attached? Why are the eyes stalked ”? Behind the 
eyes are the antennules, slender double feelers. At the base of 
these find the statocysts. (These are small, sac-like sensory organs.) 
Back of the antennules are the antennce. At the base of these are 
the openings of the excretory organs, the green glands. The jaws, 
the mandibles, are next in order. In what direction do they move? 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


65 


Experiment to find out. The next appendages are the maxillce. 
What is their function? The remaining appendages of the cephalo- 
thorax belong to the thorax proper. Find the three pairs of 
appendages, the maxillipeds, which are next to the maxillae. 
What is their function? The five pairs of appendages posterior 
to the maxillipeds are the legs. Study the legs which bear large 
claws. How many joints are present in these appendages? In 
what directions can they move? For what are they adapted? 
Compare the remainder of the thoracic appendages with these. 
How many pairs are there? What is the function of each? 

3. Abdomen. Examine the middle segment of the abdomen. 
How is it attached to the others? Of what advantage is such an 
attachment? In what direction can this segment move? Note the 
appendages which are attached to it. These are called swim- 
merets. How many are there in each segment and what is their use? 
How many segments have such appendages? Compare all the 
segments of the abdomen, and compare their appendages as to 
structure and to use. What is the special function of the last two 
segments and of the appendage which the next to the last segment 
bears? The last segment is the telson. 

4. List all the external structures adapted for locomotion, for 
food getting, and for the receiving of sensations. Draw the side 
view of the crayfish. Draw one of the third pair of walking legs 
and one of the swimmerets. 

III. The Internal Structure. Study a prepared dissection of a 
crayfish in which the dorsal wall of the abdomen and thorax has 
been removed. Note the heart, which is in the median line of the 
cephalothorax. It lies in a cavity which receives the arterial blood 
from the gills. This blood enters the heart through three pairs of 
valves that open inwards. From the heart five blood vessels pass 
anteriorly and another passes posteriorly to the dorsal part of the 
abdomen. From the latter a branch is sent out to the ventral 
region. The circulatory system is an open one; for in the body 
tissues the blood leaves the vessels, and it is returned to the heart 
through a series of open spaces. Remove the side of the shell just 


66 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


above the legs. Note the gills. Place one of the gills in water. 
What are its character and shape? How many pairs of gills do you 
find? To what are they attached? What is their function? How 
does water enter them? Draw one of the gills which has been 
placed in water. Note the large stomach in the cephalothorax. 
The stomach connects with the esophagus, which in turn leads to 
the mouth. Just back of the stomach, and on either side, is the 
reddish liver. Note the character and the shape of the intestine. 
Note the light-colored muscles of the crayfish. What is the func¬ 
tion of these muscles? In a specimen from which the contents of 
the body parts have been removed, note the position of the nerve 
cord and ganglia. They are similar in arrangement to those of the 
earthworm. Find some of the ganglia along the cord. Where is 
the '' brain ”? The green glands, before noted, are excretory in 
function. They are below the stomach, in the front of the head. 
(See Waggoner, Fig. 179.) 


EXERCISE 67 

THE LOCUST (Grasshopper) 

If possible, collect live specimens for the preliminary study. 
Freshly killed or preserved specimens may be used for the remain¬ 
der of the exercise. (See Exercise 6.) 

I. The Living Locust. Observe the way in which the locust 
climbs a stem and the way in which it jumps. Watch the move¬ 
ments of the mouth parts. What is the general shape of the body? 
What are the nature and the use of its covering? This covering 
is the exoskeleton. Note the division of the body into the head, 
thorax, and abdomen. How can you distinguish between the abdo¬ 
men and the thorax? Look for the breathing pores, spiracles, a 
pair of which is present on each segment of the body posterior to 
the head. Watch the movements of these spiracles. How many 
legs has this insect? How many wings? 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


67 


II. The External Structure. 

1. What are the size, the position, and the shape of the head? 
How is the head attached to the body? Is it movable? Note the 
slender feelers or antennce. What are the number and the location 
of the antennae? How many segments are there in each? Locate 
the compound eyes. These are upoti the sides of the dorsal region 
of the head. Locate the three simple eyes, the ocelli. Two of these 
lie between the compound eyes, just anterior to their dorsal part. 
The other lies in a depression in the median line of the face.” 
Examine the compound eyes with a lens and note the facets of 
which they are composed. Draw some of them. Study the mouth 
parts. Locate the labrum, or upper lip; the labium, or lower lip; 
the mandibles, or jaws, which are just below the labrum; and 
the maxillce, or little jaws, just below the mandibles. How do the 
mandibles open? Note the appendages of the mouth parts, the 
palpi. How many are there? What are their location and ar¬ 
rangement? Are the mouth parts adapted for sucking or for 
biting? Explain. Draw both front and side views of the head. 

2. Compare the size of the thorax with that of the head. Note 
its divisions. The anterior segment is the prothorax, the middle 
segment is the mesothorax, and the posterior one is the metathorax. 
What are the position and arrangement of the wings? Compare 
the pairs as to size, texture, and use. Remove them carefully and 
draw one of each. (Extend the back wing.) What are the posi¬ 
tion and arrangement of the legs? Compare the three pairs as to 
their size, use, and structure. In each leg the small rounded part 
nearest to the body is the coxa. Next to this is the trochanter, a 
still smaller segment. The third and longest segment is femur. 
Beyond this is the tibia. The remainder of the leg is the tarsus. 
What is the use of the “ claws ” and of the '' spines ” on the legs? 
Draw a hind leg. Draw the thorax from the side. 

3. What is the shape of the abdomen? What is its size as com¬ 
pared with the thorax? Of how many segments is it composed? 
In the female specimen, note the end of the abdomen. The four- 
pointed structure is the ovipositor. How is it adapted for deposit¬ 
ing the eggs? Find the spiracles, the breathing pores. What are 


68 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


their number and position? Their use? Note under the base of 
the wings, on the first abdominal segment, a pair of shiny oval 
membranes, the tympanums. What is their use? Draw the 
abdomen from the side. 

III. The Internal Structure. (This study is optional with the 
instructor.) Study a prepared dissection of a female locust from 
which the dorsal exoskeleton has been removed. (See Waggoner, 
Fig. 188.) 

1. All along the dorsal surface of the abdomen, just beneath the 
body wall, lies the delicate heart, a tube-like structure. 

2. The respiratory organs are a system of air tubes, the trachece, 
which ramify throughout the body. They are connected with the 
outside by their openings, the spiracles. The tracheae may be 
seen as glistening white threads and sacs in freshly killed speci¬ 
mens. (See Waggoner, Fig. 189.) 

3. A mass of yellow eggs will probably be found in the anterior 
part of the abdomen. This mass may be separated into right and 
left parts. From each a tube, the oviduct, leads to the ovipositor. 

4. After removing the reproductive organs, the digestive system 
may be studied. The mouth leads into a buccal cavity, which opens 
into the esophagus. This is followed by the large crop. In the 
crop the dark liquid is produced which the locust ejects from its 
mouth. The crop extends through most of the thorax. It leads 
into the fore-stomach. Next is the stomach proper. From the 
anterior end of the stomach arise the gastric cccca, double cone- 
shaped pouches. These lie parallel with the digestive tube. The 
stomach extends posteriorly through the fourth segment of the 
abdomen and leads into the intestine. This becomes smaller 
toward the posterior end and bends dorsally as it opens into the 
rectum. Make a drawing of the digestive system. 

5. The excretory system consists of a large number of fine, 
thread-like, whitish tubes that arise at the anterior end of the 
intestine. 

6. The nervous system is similar to that of the earthworm. If 
possible, locate the “ brain.” This is dorsal to the labrum on the 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


69 


upper side of the esophagus. Locate the ventral nerve cord. This 
is ventral to the digestive system. Do you find ganglia along the 
course of this cord? Where? 

IV. Name the structures present in a locust which adapt it to 
its habitat. 

V. Examine as many different stages of development in young 
locusts as possible. Note especially the changes in wings and in 
size. The type of development found in the locust is known as 
‘‘ incomplete metamorphosis.” 


EXERCISE 68 

THE MAY BEETLE 

If desired, some other beetle may be substituted for the May 
beetle (the so-called June bug ”). 

I. The External Structure. Examine the specimen which is 
provided. Note its shape and color. 

1. The Head. What is the nature of the eyes? Note the 
character of the antennae. Compare with the locust. Compare 
the mouth parts with those of the locust. 

2. The Thorax. Are the legs all alike? Explain. What is the 
use of the barb and the claws? How many wings has the beetle? 
Compare them in regard to structure, size, shape, and function. 
Note and explain how the posterior wings are folded. 

3. The Abdomen. What is its structure? Its shape and size? 
Compare with the remainder of the body. Find the spiracles. 

II. The Stages of Development. Note the shape, the color, and 
the size of the larva (the grub). Compare the.head, thorax, and 
abdomen with those of the adult. Describe the covering of the 
larva. When does the beetle damage plants — in the adult or 
in the larval stage? What kind of a poison should be used to de¬ 
stroy this insect? Why? Examine the pupa of the same beetle. 
Compare with the larva. The type of development found in the 


70 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


beetle is known as “ complete metamorphosis.’’ (See Waggoner, 
Fig. 193.) 

III. Compare the beetle with a locust and notice several marked 
differences. What can you tell of the habits of the beetle from the 
study which you have made of its various structures? 


EXERCISE 69 (Supplementary) 

THE SQUASH BUG 

If desired, the box elder bug or some other species of bug may be 
substituted for the squash bug. 

I. The External Structure. Examine the specimen provided 
for you. What are its size, its shape, its color, and its markings? 

1. The Head. What is the shape of the head? What is the 
position of the eyes? Examine and describe the antennae. How 
do the mouth parts differ from those of the locust? Explain fully. 
From this study, determine the nature of this insect’s food — 
whether it is solid or liquid. How is the sucking beak carried when 
not in use? What kind of a poison would you use to kill this in¬ 
sect — one applied to the plant upon which it feeds or one applied 
to the body of the insect? Why? 

2. The Thorax. What is the nature of the legs? The number 
of the wings? Compare the texture of the outer and under wings, 
and the anterior and posterior portions of the outer wings. What 
does their structure suggest with regard to the use of each pair? 
Draw one of each pair of wings. 

3. What is the character of the abdomen? 

II. The Stages of Development. Examine a number of young 
squash bugs. Arrange them in the order of their development. 
Note any differences, especially with regard to their wings. (See 
Waggoner, Fig. 191.) 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


71 


EXERCISE 70 

THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 

If desired, the Monarch butterfly may be substituted for the 
cabbage butterfly. Handle the specimens very carefully. (See 
Waggoner, Fig. 195.) 

I. The Adult. Note the position and number of the wings; 
then carefully remove them and place in a book until you are ready 
to use them for further study. Note the parts of the body. Com¬ 
pare the covering of the body with that of the insects previously 
studied. Using a lens, examine the head. What are the number, 
the position, and the character of the eyes? What is the nature 
of the antennae? Compare the antennae with those of a locust. 
What is the nature of the covering of the anterior part of the head? 
Examine the mouth parts. What do these indicate with regard to 
this butterfly’s food habits? How are the mouth parts protected? 
Uncoil the sucking tube. How long is it? How many pairs of 
legs do you find? Examine them. What is their position? What 
does their character suggest regarding their use? Compare them 
with those of a locust. Compare the two pairs of wings as to shape 
and markings. What causes their rigidity? Examine with the 
lens. Then examine a portion of a wing which has been mounted 
under the low power of the microscope. What is the arrangement 
of the scales which cover the wings? Their nature? Examine the 
abdomen. What are its characteristics? 

Draw one of each pair of wings, a small portion of a wing showing 
the scale arrangement, an antenna, and the sucking tube. 

II. The Larva. Examine the larva of the butterfly. What is 
its general nature? Note its color and size. Examine the head, 
noting especially the mouth parts. How do these compare with 
those of the adult? How many legs are present? To what are 
they attached? Are the legs jointed? Note the fleshy 'prolegs 
which are posterior to the true legs. What is their nature? Their 
use? What is the food of this cabbage worm ”? Compare it 


72 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


with the adult in respect to food habits. Draw a side view of 
the larva. 

III. The Pupa. Compare the pupa in shape and size with the 
adult. What is the nature of the body covering? Do you find tiny 
holes in some specimens? Probably these are the work of minute 
parasitic insects. (See Waggoner, Fig. 197.) Draw the pupa. 

IV. What characteristics of butterflies have you observed which 
adapt them to their environment? 

EXERCISE 71 (Supplementary) 

THE HONEYBEE 

I. The Adult. Examine one of the workers.’’ What is its 
size? Its general form? What are its body parts? Note its color, 
its markings, and its body covering. Examine its head under a 
lens. What are the shape, size, and location of the compound eyes? 
What are the nature and location of the antennse? Describe the 
mouth parts. Draw a face ” view of the head. Study the 
thorax. What are the number and nature of the wings? Compare 
them with regard to size and shape. Draw one of each. Study 
the legs, noting their number, size, and covering. How are they 
adapted for the work done by the honeybee? What are the shape 
and structure of the abdomen? Find the ‘‘ sting.” What are its 
location and use? 

II. The Stages of Development. If practicable, study the lar¬ 
val and pupal stages of the honeybee. Compare each with the 
adult in regard to the head, mouth parts, legs, and body covering. 
Where are these immature stages of the bee to be found? 

EXERCISE 72 

THE HOUSE FLY 

Some other fly may be substituted for the house fly if desired. 
If this is done, the house fly should be used for comparative pur¬ 
poses. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


73 


I. The Adult. Place the specimen on white paper and study 
under a lens. What are its size and general form? What parts of 
the body do you find? Note the body covering. What is its na¬ 
ture? What are the number and character of the legs? Of the 
wings? Compare the wings with those of a butterfly; with those 
of a beetle. Examine a head which has been mounted, face ” up, 
under low power. Note its covering. Examine the compound 
eyes. What is the character of the mouth parts? Draw the head 
as you see it. Examine a foot which has been mounted under low 
power. Draw it, showing the nature of its covering and the parts 
of which it consists. How is a fly fitted to carry disease germs? 
What food habits has it which make it a menace to health? (See 
Waggoner, Figs. 207 and 208.) 

II. The Egg. (House fly eggs may be found in manure.) Study 
one under a lens. What are its size, shape, and color? Draw an 
egg. 

III. The Larva (Maggot). (The larvae also may be found in 
manure or in decaying waste matter.) What are its color, size, 
and shape? Are legs present? What is the food of the house fly’s 
larva? Draw a larva, using the same scale as you did for the egg. 

IV. The Pupa. (Find the pupae in manure or in materials 
near by.) Study under a lens. Compare with the larva as to 
shape, size, and color. Do you find mouth parts? Does the 
house fly eat while in this stage? What developments take place 
during the pupal stage? Draw a pupa, using the same scale as 
for the egg. 


EXERCISE 73 

A SURVEY OF BREEDING PLACES OF FLIES 
AND MOSQUITOES 

I. Field Work. Divide the class into groups, one group each for 
certain city blocks or areas which adjoin the school. After the 
assignment of these areas, each group may make a map showing 


74 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


the location of buildings, fences, alleys, and adjoining streets. On 
this map may be indicated with symbols the location of each 
possible breeding place for flies and for mosquitoes. Each group 
should study the nature of each situation, determine what might 
be done to prevent it from continuing as a possible breeding place 
for these insects, and prepare a report containing suggestions for 
the improvement of the conditions found. 

II. Conference. Each group may choose one of its number to 
report the results of its survey. Another member may report the 
suggestions of the committee for the improvement of conditions. 
The maps made by the various committees should be posted 
where they can be examined by each member of the class. 

III. Each pupil may write a short paper summarizing the 
conditions found in the survey and suggesting remedial measures. 
The best of these papers might be published in the school or local 
newspaper. 


EXERCISE 74 

INTERRELATIONS OF LIVING THINGS 

This project may vary according to conditions and the observa¬ 
tions may be entirely individual if it is deemed advisable. It 
should be begun in early spring and should be continued for a num¬ 
ber of weeks or throughout the spring. 

I. 1. You have heard the remark, “We have too many 
English sparrows about our homes.” Let us attempt to find out 
if this statement is true. Look up the history of the English 
sparrow’s introduction into this country. What are the objections 
to English sparrows? Observe those which you find about your 
homes. Read all that you can find regarding their habits. You 
may choose a specific problem, such as: 

a. Daily observations and records of the nest-building of Eng¬ 
lish sparrows. 

h. Observations and records of interference with other birds. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


75 


c. Observations and records of food habits. 

d. Counts of the English sparrows as found on a single lot or in 
various typical locations. 

Reports upon the reading and observations may be made in 
occasional class conferences. 

2. To what native birds is the English sparrow related? Iden¬ 
tify as many of these in the field as possible. What are the general 
characteristics of the sparrows with respect to food and habitat? 
We do not often hear of objections to native sparrows. Why not? 

3. What factors have enabled the English sparrow to multiply 
so rapidly in this country? 

II. Sparrows are seed-eating birds. Many are useful because 
they devour large numbers of weed seeds. (See Waggoner, 
Page 462.) What troublesome weeds need to be held in check in 
this community? Bring specimens of the most common weeds 
which grow in your garden. Identify each. Do the same for the 
weeds of your lawn and of other typical regions. From your 
reading, determine which plants are native and which have been 
introduced from other localities. By what means have weeds 
been introduced into this counry? Which, in general, are the 
more troublesome, the native or the introduced weeds? 

III. The Domestic Cat. The domestic cat is an introduced 
animal. Find what you can of its history. What charges may be 
made against the cat? Why are such charges justified, at least to a 
certain extent? (See Waggoner, Page 464.) 

IV. Do we have any definite means of knowing what will be 
the result when a new plant or animal is added to or removed from 
any region? Wliat examples of such disturbances of the '' balance 
in nature” are cited in the text? (See Waggoner, Page 422.) 
What has been the result of introducing into North America the 
English sparrow, certain weeds, and the domestic cat? Give 
additional examples, if possible. 


76 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 75 

ANIMAL REACTIONS 

I. Reaction to Light. Collect land sow bugs (Porce^^^o). (Look 
for these in moist, dark situations, such as the under side of boards 
which lie on the ground.) Place a number in a dish which has been 
half covered with black paper. Place the dish in the light. Leave 
undisturbed until the animals are resting. Then note the distri¬ 
bution of the animals. Record. Repeat the experiment several 
times. Average the results. To what stimulus have these animals 
responded? In what way? An animabs reaction to light is known 
as phototaxis. 

II. Reaction to Moisture. Use land sow bugs. Cover the 
bottom of a pan, one half with rather moist soil and the other half 
with dry soil. (Use the same kind of soil for each half. Why?) 
Place the sow bugs near the center. Cover to exclude the light 
and allow the pan to remain undisturbed for some time. Then un¬ 
cover and note the distribution of the enclosed animals. Record. 
Repeat a number of times. Average the results. To what stimulus 
have the animals responded? In what way? An animal’s reaction 
to moisture is known as hydrotaxis. 


EXERCISE 76 

PLANT REACTIONS 

I. Reaction to Light. 

1. Place a box or pot in which young oat seedlings are begin¬ 
ning to appear above the soil, a short distance inside a sunny 
window. Leave undisturbed for a few days. Then note the posi¬ 
tion of the plants with relation to the Hght. Reverse the position 
of the box. Note any changes in the position of the plants. 

2. Keep oat seedlings in darkness until about an inch high. 
Then expose for two minutes to sunlight which enters from one 
side only. Leave in darkness for a number of hours. Examine at 
the end of the period for any change in the position of the plants. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 77 

To what stimulus are the plants responding? This reaction is 
called phototropism. 

II. Reaction to Gravity. Obtain the stems of large growing 
grasses. From these cut sections in such a way as to include two 
nodes and an internode in each. Place these sections in moist 
earth in a flower pot. See that they stand in a vertical position 
when the pot is upright. When prepared, turn the pot on its side. 
Leave undisturbed for twenty-four hours or longer. Observe at 
the end of this period. Where in a grass stem does growth occur? 
(See Waggoner, Page 15.) To what stimulus has the stem re¬ 
sponded? This reaction is called geotropism. 

EXERCISE 77 

THE SUNFISH 

Obtain a number of living sunflshes and keep them in an 
aquarium in the laboratory. Observe them very frequently. 

I. Where were the fish obtained? In what kind of water, shal¬ 
low or deep, still or running, clear or cloudy, were they found? 

II. What is the position of the fish in the water? Note the shape 
of the body. Compare the body in length, width, and depth. 
Note the covering of the body. To what may the arrangement of 
the scales be compared? What makes holding the fish in the hand 
a difficult matter? How do the shape of the body and the slimy 
coating adapt a fish for its movement through the water? Note 
the fins. How many paired fins do you find? The anterior ones 
are the pectoral fins and the posterior, the pelvic fins. These fins 
correspond to the pg^ired limbs of the higher vertebrates. Of the 
unpaired fins, the one in the median dorsal line is the dorsal fin* 
the one in the median ventral line, the anal fin; and the one at the 
posterior end, the tail or caudal fin. Which are used chiefly for 
propelling the fish through the water? Which are used chiefly for 
maintaining its balance? Note the structure of the fins. They are 
supported by fin rays and hard sharp spines. Compare the size 


78 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


of the head with that of the remainder of the body. Note the 
position of the eyes. Does the fish close its eyes? Explain. Note 
the position, shape, and size of the mouth. Watch the movements 
of the mouth. Find the gill openings on either side of the body. 
The covering of each is an operculum. Note the form and the 
movement of the operculum. Does the operculum move in unison 
with the mouth? 

III. Respiration in the Fish. 

1. In a preserved (or freshly killed) fish, examine the gills. 
Note the four pairs of bony arches which act as supports for the 
delicate gill filaments. Water enters the mouth and passes out 
through the gills. As it passes through the gills, some of the oxygen 
which is in solution is removed by the blood circulating through 
the gill filaments. Review the method by which the human body 
obtains its supply of oxygen. Compare this with what takes place 
in the gills of a fish. 

2. Slowly heat a beaker of cold water. Note the bubbles which 
form during the heating. These are air bubbles. What becomes 
of them? From this experiment determine which holds the more 
dissolved air, cold or warm water. Why do fish come near the 
surface in warm water? Why is ice packed about or placed in the 
minnow buckets used by fishermen? 

3. In the process of photosynthesis, what gas is used by the 
plant? What is released? Why, then, can green water plants and 
fish live together in an aquarium to the great advantage of each 
other? 

IV. Make a drawing of a side view of a sunfish. 

EXERCISE 78 

THE FROG 

Capture one or more live frogs and bring them into the labora¬ 
tory. 

I. The Living Frog. Observe in the water and out of it. When 
quiet in the water, what is the frog’s position? What is its rela- 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


79 


tion to the surface of the water? Why cannot a frog remain under 
the water for an indefinite period? Watch the frog swim. How 
does it propel itself? Watch a frog move about outside of the 
water. What enables it to jump so far? 

II. The External Structure. 

1. What is the size of the mature frog? Of what parts does the 
body consist? What is the nature of the body covering? Com¬ 
pare with that of the sunfish. What is the color and what mark¬ 
ings are present on the upper surface? Compare the under with 
the upper surface. Why is the difference in color of advantage to 
an animal which lives in water? Note the looseness of the body 
covering. Of what advantage is this looseness? 

2. The Head. Compare the size of the head with that of the 
whole body. What is its shape? What is the size of the mouthf 
Determine in what direction the lower jaws move. Examine the 
eyes. What are their location, size, and shape? How many eye¬ 
lids are present in each eye? Gently touch the eye of the living 
frog. Note how the eyes can be withdrawn into the orbits. (The 
orbits are depressions in the skull which partially enclose the eye¬ 
balls.) Back of the eyes look for the eardrums, circular areas of 
tightly drawn skin. Locate the nostrils. What is their use? 

3. The Limbs. Compare the fore and hind limbs in respect to 
size. Note the parts of the fore limb. These are the upper arm, 
fore arm, and hand. Find the corresponding parts in the hind limb. 
They are the thigh, shank, and foot. How many fingers has the 
hand? How many toes has the foot? Compare with your hands 
and feet. Note that the hand and foot are “ webbed.” Of what 
use is this characteristic to the animal? 

4. Make a drawing of the dorsal view of the frog. 

III. The Internal Structure. Examine a preserved specimen. 

1. Open the mouth. Find the teeth near the edge of the upper 
jaw and in the roof of the mouth. In the lower jaw note the 
attachment and the size of the tongue. How is the tongue adapted 
for capturing insects? In the lower jaw note the circular eleva- 


80 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


tion. On it find a median, slit-like opening. This opening leads 
into the air passages which in turn open into the lungs. The back 
of the mouth leads into the esophagus. 

2. Examine a prepared dissection. Note the skin which has 
been cut and turned back. What do you observe with respect to 
its thickness and character? Beneath the skin is a muscular layer. 
When the body wall is opened and turned back, the contents of 
the cavity of the trunk are exposed. Note the thin membranes in 
whose folds some of the organs are suspended. These are the 
mesenteries. 

3. Find the heart at the anterior end of the body cavity. The 
pointed posterior part of it is the ventricle; the two dark-colored 
auricles are anterior and dorsal to this. From the right side of the 
base of the ventricle, a tube which forks into two branches carries 
the blood away from the heart. Each branch divides into three 
trunks, one pair of trunks uniting to form the dorsal aorta, the 
artery which supplies most of the body. The blood from the body 
returns by means of veins to the right auricle. On either side, 
near the heart, are the lungs. These connect with the opening in 
the mouth previously observed. The long digestive tube extends 
from the mouth to the anus. Beyond the esophagus lies the en¬ 
larged stomach. This connects with the coiled small intestine, 
which in turn leads into the large intestine. The three large, 
reddish-brown lobes of the liver lie at the side of and back of the 
heart. Situated in the loop formed by the intestine and stomach 
is the pancreas. On either side of the posterior part of the intes¬ 
tine in the dorsal region of the body cavity is a flattened reddish 
body, a kidney. Near the ventral surface of each kidney, in the 
male frog, is a white, elongated reproductive gland or testis. In 
the female, an ovary occupies a corresponding position. Each 
ovary is a large lobed mass, mainly composed of eggs. The eggs 
are black and white. The ducts of the ovaries are long and much 
coiled. They lie at either side of the ovaries. In both sexes a tuft 
of finger-like masses of yellow fat may be found connected with 
the reproductive glands. Find a thin sac, the urinary bladder, in 
the extreme posterior end of the body cavity. This is an outgrowth 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


81 


of the intestine. (For a study of the nervous system a specially 
prepared dissection may be provided by the instructor.) The 
brain lies in a cavity in the top of the skull. What is its color? 
Note the parts of which it consists. Extending posteriorly from 
the brain is the spinal cord. How is it protected? Find some of 
the spinal nerves which emerge from the sides of the spinal column. 
Note that these are paired. The main part of the nervous system 
is in the dorsal region. Compare the nervous system with that of 
an invertebrate. 


EXERCISE 79 

THE METAMORPHOSIS OF A FROG 

Collect a number of frog eggs in March or early April. Place in 
jars or aquariums in which some green water plants are present. 
Observe from day to day. A series of drawings and of brief notes, 
dated as the observations are made, will make a satisfactory record 
of what takes place in the development of the egg and young frog. 
Note any changes in form, size, and activity. How long is it 
before the tadpole in the jelly-like envelope begins to move? 
When does it escape from this covering? Note the head. Note 
the position and size of the mouth. When do the external gills 
disappear? When do the internal gills first appear?" After the 
disappearance of the external gills, note the operculum. Through 
how many opercular openings does water escape after its circula¬ 
tion through the gills? On which side of the body is this opening? 
Compare the body of the tadpole with that of a fish with respect 
to its shape, gills, tail, and fins. What is the use of the tail? From 
the ventral side, try to see the coiled digestive tube. (This is 
adapted for the digestion of vegetable food.) Compare with that 
of the adult. How does the food of the adult differ from that of 
the tadpole? Which legs appear first? How is the disappearance 
of the tail related to the development of the legs? (The materials 
in the tissues of the tail are eventually absorbed and utilized during 
the development of the legs and of the remainder of the body.) 


82 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


The fore legs are developed under the operculum. How soon after 
the hind legs do they appear? 

How long a time is required for the frog to pass through the tad¬ 
pole stage? What is its size at the end of this period? What 
changes must occur with relation to digestion, respiration, and 
locomotion before a frog leaves the tadpole stage? 


EXERCISE 80 (Supplementary) 

REPTILES 

If possible, procure a living turtle (or tortoise) and a garter 
snake for observation in the laboratory. (Much needless fear of 
snakes may be overcome if interest in their habits is aroused.) 

I. The Turtle (or tortoise — land forms are tortoises). What 
is the general shape of the body? What is the character of the 
covering? The upper part of the shell is the carapace; the under, 
the plastron. How many rows of plates do you find on the cara¬ 
pace? Note their markings. If an empty shell of a turtle (or 
tortoise) is available, note its structure. Observe that th^ outer 
plates are of a horny nature and that beneath them is a bony layer. 
Look at the inside of the shell. What does its structure suggest 
with regard to its relation to the skeleton? What is the use of the 
turtle’s shell? Note the shape, the position, and the covering of 
the head. Explain the position of the nostrils; of the eyes. Note 
the character of the jaws. What are the nature, position, and 
covering of the legs? Note the character of the toes. Watch the 
turtle walk and swim. How does it carry on these activities? 
Observe the manner in which the animal protects or defends itself. 
Find out what you can of its food habits. What adaptations has 
it for securing food? 

II. The Garter Snake. Observe the general form and color 
of this animal. What peculiar markings has it? What is the 
nature of the body covering? Note the arrangement and shape of 
the scales. How does the shape of the scales vary on different 
parts of the body? Compare the snake with the turtle. What 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


83 


likenesses do you observe? What differences? Watch it crawl ” 
on a smooth surface, such as glass, and then on a rough one. How 
does it “ crawl ”? Why did it have difficulty in the first case? 
Note the large mouth. Induce the snake to strike.” How does 
it do this? Note its forked tongue. Find out what you can of the 
food habits of this snake. What adaptations has it which fit it for 
its manner of food-getting? 

EXERCISE 81 (Supplementary) 

A BIRD • 

Procure a live pigeon or English sparrow and place it in a cage. 
Supplement this with a mounted specimen of the same bird if 
possible. 

What is the general form of the bird? How does its shape adapt 
it for flight? Note the body covering. What characteristics has 
such a covering which further fit the bird for flight? How are the 
wings adapted for flight? What is the shape of the head? How 
is it attached to the body? What is the advantage of a neck which 
moves as freely as that of the bird? Where are the eyes located? 
What are their size and shape? Note the eyelids. What is their 
nature? The ears are below and back of the eyes. Examine the 
beak. Determine which part of it is movable. Note the nostrils. 
What is their position? Draw the head. Where are the legs 
located with reference to the body as a whole? How are they 
adapted to the bird’s mode of life? Note the feet. How many 
toes are there? What is their position? Draw a foot. 

EXERCISE 82 (Supplementary) 

A MAMMAL 

For this study procure a live “ rabbit ” (hare) or a squirrel. 
Mounted specimens may be used if desired. (The rabbit and 
squirrel are rodents, or gnawing animals.) 

What are the size and color of the animal? What is the general 


84 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


nature of the body covering? What variation do you find in the 
fur on different parts of the body? Compare the fore and hind 
legs as to their size and use. Examine the feet. What are the 
number and nature of the toes? Of what use are the claws? Note 
the character of the under side of the feet. Note the size and 
location of the ears. Watch their movements. Observe the eyes. 
How many eyelids do you find? What is the nature of the front 
teeth? These teeth continue to grow throughout life. Since the 
outside is much harder then the inside, the inner portions wear 
away more rapidly than the outer, and the teeth remain sharp. 
What is this animaPs food? How are the teeth adapted for the 
use of such food? 

EXERCISE 83 

INTERRELATIONS OF THE LIFE ABOUT A POND 

I. Field Study. Make a survey of all the living forms in the 
pond or within three feet of the edge of the water. Collect speci¬ 
mens of each form. Let certain members of the class act as re¬ 
corders. These recorders may make a note of the places where 
the specimens are found and of any activities observed before they 
are collected. 

II. Laboratory Study and Conference. Identify the specimens 
which have been collected and determine the groups to which 
they belong. Look up their food habits. (See Needham and 
Lloyd, Life of Inland Waters.) Arrange the report in a table as 
suggested below: 

Pond Life 


Name 

Animal or 

PLANT 

Group 

Where found 

Food 

(Example) 

Whirligig 

beetle 

Animal 

Insect 

Surface of water 

Small insects which 
fall into the water 








FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


85 


EXERCISE 84 

INTERRELATIONS OF THE LIFE IN AND ABOUT 
A DECAYING STUMP 

I. Field Study. Find a stump which is in an advanced stage 
of decay. First determine what animal life and plant life exist 
near the stump. Collect specimens for further study and identi¬ 
fication. Next remove any bark which may be on the stump. 
Examine the under side of the bark and the exposed surface of the 
wood for the presence of living organisms. Break or saw open the 
upper part of the stump. Examine the wood for the evidence of or 
presence of borers. Do you find any indications of fungous growths 
either on the surface or in the wood? Now continue breaking away 
the stump until you have reached the ground. Dig both around 
and into the base of the stump, looking for living organisms as you 
do so. In all cases note the activities of the organisms found, 
determine what is the food of each, and make a note of these facts 
on the labels of the containers which are used to hold the specimens. 

II. Laboratory Study. Identify and label all specimens taken 
into the laboratory. Read about and discuss their characteristics, 
their food habits, and their methods of reproduction. List in a 
tabulated form as follows: 


Name 

Plant or 
Animal 

Where Found 

Activities 
{If any are 
observed) 

Food 

{Example) 
White ant 
(termite) 

Animal 

In decaying wood 


Dead wood 









86 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


EXERCISE 85 

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 

These exercises may be assigned to individuals or to groups, or 
they may be used by the class as a whole. The instructor may 
allow each member of the class to choose one or more problems 
for individual work upon which he may report to the class toward 
the end of the year, or he may grant this privilege only to those 
pupils whose general class work is above average. It is expected 
that through these exercises a greater appreciation of and interest 
in nature will be developed. 


I 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LILAC BUD 

Use a lilac shrub on the school grounds or your home grounds 
for the purpose of making these observations. Begin the observa¬ 
tions before the buds have begun to open in the spring. (Buds of 
various other plants might be studied in the same manner.) 

I. Note the size, the shape, and the color of the lilac buds as they 
appear in early spring. What is their arrangement on the stem? 
Remove the outer scales of a well developed bud. Note their 
number, size, shape, and color. To what are these scales attached? 
Next examine the tiny leaves within. To what are they attached? 
How do they differ from the outer scales? Make drawings to 
illustrate what you have seen. 

II. Select several buds of the shrub which you observe. Mark 
the twig on which these are found. (This may be done by tying 
a string around it.) Note the changes which occur from day to 
day. What becomes of the outer scales? What has been their 
function? Note the scars which remain when these fall. Observe 
carefully the way in which the inner portions grow and into what 
each structure develops. Whaf? becomes of the central axis of the 
bud? Make very frequent sketches of the plant which will show 
the manner of development. Date each. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


87 


III. When was the lilac bud formed? Did all the buds develop 
in the same way? How do those branches which bear flower 
clusters differ from those which do not? 

IV. Near the end of the term, write an account of the lilac bud’s 
development based upon the notes of these observations. Use 
your sketches as illustrations. 


II 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLOWERS AND 
FRUITS OF THE DANDELION 

I. What is the appearance of the dandelion plant when viewed 
from above? Of what value to the plant is this rosette ” ar¬ 
rangement? Note the character of the stem. What is the ad¬ 
vantage of this to the plant? What is the character of the roots? 
What is the fleshy ” material present in them? Explain its use. 
Why is this plant hard to kill out? 

II. Select a plant and study as follows for ten days or more: 
Observe the plant several times each day. Where do the buds 
arise? What are the color, size, and shape of the young buds? 
Note the length of the flower stem at first; also the green bracts 
that surround and cover the bud. What is the position of these 
bracts in the young bud? 

III. Mark a bud and observe it from day to day. Note what 
takes place with reference to: 

1. The successive position of the bracts. 

2. The lengthening of the flower stem. 

3. The effect of sunshiny and dark days upon the opening of the 
flower heads. Does a single head open more than once? 

IV. Examine mature seed clusters. How are the seeds scat¬ 
tered? What is their position while suspended in the air? Expkin 
this. Where did the ‘‘ parachute ” develop? Open a head which 
is in full flower and find the downy portions of the parachutes.” 
Next, open a head that has recently blossomed. How is the 


88 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


‘‘ parachute ’’ developing? Explain the use to the plant of the 
changes you have observed in the flower head and in the flower 
stem. 

V. After you have observed definitely what occurs, write an 
account of the development of the dandelion flower and fruit. 

Ill 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLOWER AND 
FRUIT OF THE MAPLE OR ELM 

I. Observe the date of flowering. (These trees blossom very 
early in spring.) How are the. flowers borne? Are they showy 
or otherwise? Are the stamens and pistil in the same blossom? 
On the same tree? How are they pollinated? What evidence do 
you have of this? What becomes of the scales of the flower buds? 

II. Flowers. If there are staminate flowers — flowers in which 
no pistils are present — what becomes of them? When does this 
occur? What is the function of these? Observe the pistillate 
flowers — flowers in which no stamens are present — of the same 
kind of tree. Are they borne on the same individual as the 
staminate flowers, or on a separate one? If the tree has perfect 
flowers — flowers in which both stamens and pistils are present — 
do these have parts other than the stamens and pistils? Observe 
either the pistillate or perfect flowers throughout their develop¬ 
ment. Note daily the changes which^ occur and the development 
of new structures. Do all of the flowers complete their develop¬ 
ment? In the case of the trees which bear separate pistillate and 
staminate flowers, do both of these develop with equal rapidity? 
Explain. Draw the flowers observed. 

III. Fruits. How long does it take the fruit to develop? How 
are the fruits scattered? Where is the seed held? How far are the 
fruits carried from the parent plant by the wind? Estimate the 
number of seeds on a large tree. Why is it necessary for seeds to 
be scattered? Observe, if possible, when these seeds germinate. 
Draw the fruit. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


89 


IV 

THE BEHAVIOR OF THE ROBIN AND THE 
RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD 

Observe the robin or red-winged blackbird daily throughout 
the spring months and keep a report of your observations in the 
form of a diary. A week before school closes write an account of 
the observations which you have recorded in your diary. 

I. What is the date of the first arrival? Note the increase in 
number from day to day. How long after the first arrival is the 
maximum number seen? Do the robins come singly or in flocks? 
Do they arrive by night or by day? Why do you think so? 

II. What characterizes the behavior of the early arrivals? 
Note any changes in the actions of the. birds as the spring ad¬ 
vances. What is the date of the first nest-building? Where is the 
nest located? Note the effect of the weather upon nest-building. 
What materials are used for the nest? What are the manner and 
arrangement of the materials? 

III. Note the date of the first appearance of eggs in the nest. 
What are the color, the size, and the number of the eggs? At 
what intervals are the eggs laid? Record the dates and the length 
of the period of incubation. What are the characteristics of the 
young birds? How long does it take the young to mature? (If 
your school closes before you have an opportunity to answer this 
question from observation, look up this fact in some book on birds.) 
What is the date when the young leave the nest? What is the color 
of the plumage at this time? The markings? Observe the be¬ 
havior of the young; of the parents when the young are in the 
nest and when the young leave the nest. 

IV. What do you observe to be the food of the adult? Of the 
young? How is it obtained? Study the birds as they appear 
upon the lawn when feeding. How do they obtain worms from the 
soil? 


90 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


V. Note the call-notes of the early arrivals. What changes in 
these calls occur later in the season? At what time of day does this 
bird sing the most? How many call-notes does it have? Do its 
call-notes seem to indicate anything regarding its mental 
state ”? Explain your answer. 


V 

COMMON TREES OF THE VICINITY 

Observe closely during the fall or spring months as many of the 
following trees as you find in your community, and others which 
you wish to add to the hst. Note especially the type of branching; 
the characteristics of the bark, such as its color and its smoothness 
or roughness of surface; the nature and size of the buds; the 
arrangement, the form, and the character of the leaves; the time 
of the appearance or of the falling of the leaves; the nature of the 
flowers and of the fruits. Discover through observation and 
reading the uses and relative values of these trees. Learn which 
were introduced and which are native. (Gray’s New Manual of 
Botany will be helpful in this work.) Make a chart on which to 
record your observations in a tabulated form. 

Suggested list of trees: 

Red, silver (sgft), sugar (hard), and Norway maples 
White and black oaks 
Red and canoe birches 
White (American) and red (slippery) elms 
Sycamore 
Catalpa 
Tulip tree 
‘‘‘ Carolina ” poplar 
Linden 

Horse-chestnut 
White ash 
Redbud 
Hickory 
Walnut 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


91 


VI 

COMMON SHRUBS OF THE VICINITY 

Learn what you can about twelve or more common shrubs. 
Choose those which you find on your school grounds, about your 
home, and in parks near by. Read descriptions of these and study 
pictures of them. Learn whether each is native or introduced. 
From your observations during the spring, determine if possible 
when the flowering of the shrub occurs, when the first leaves 
appear, and whether the shrub is hardy or not. What are the 
height, the nature of the branching, the appearance of the bark, 
the form and arrangement of the leaves, and the color and char¬ 
acteristics of the flowers? For what purposes may each shrub be 
used? 

Among the shrubs which may be found in most communities 
are the following: 

Lilac 

Van Hout’s Spirea (bridal wreath) 

Japanese barberry 
Common elder 

Staghorn (hairy) and smooth sumach 
Japanese quince 
Forsythia (golden bell) 

Mock orange (syringa) 

Japanese rose 
Snowball 

Highbush cranberry 
Privet 

Flowering currant (golden) 

Tartarian honeysuckle 

Hydrangea 

Deutzia 


92 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


VII 

WILD FLOWERS OF THE VICINITY 

Observe the wild flowers as they appear in early spring. Keep a 
record, as suggested below, which will include the name, the date 
of flowering, the habitat (the type of place in which the plant is 
found), and the marked characteristics of the plant. Among the 
characteristics noted should be the arrangement and form of the 
leaves, of the flowers, and of the fruits. When possible determine 
the nature of the underground parts. Find out what you can of 
the purposes and principles of the Wild Flower Preservation 
Society of America. 


Name 

Date of flowering 

Characteristics 

Habitat 






VIII 

WEEDS OF LAWNS AND GARDENS OF THE VICINITY 

This exercise may be used in the late spring or in the early fall. 
(It may have been used as a part of Exercise No. 74.) 

Make a collection of specimens of all the weeds which you find on 
your lawn and another of those which you find in your garden. 
Identify each. Learn whether it is a native or an introduced plant. 
(See Gray, New Manual of Botany.) Why is it troublesome, 
how is it disseminated, and in what way can it be eradicated or 
kept in check? 







FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


93 


IX 

REPTILES OF THE VICINITY 


Make careful observations of all the reptiles which you see dur¬ 
ing the spring months. Identify them and read any literature 
concerning them which is available. Record in a tabulated form. 


Name 

Place 

Found 

Size 

Color 

Markings 

Actions 

Economic 

Importance 









X 

COMMON BIRDS OF THE VICINITY 

Keep a record of the birds which you frequently observe in the 
spring near your home, near your school, along the roads, and along 
the wooded banks of streams. Note the time of year when they 
first arrive, when they leave, and when they nest; their size, 
color, and markings; and their food habits. From your reading 
determine the economic importance of each bird studied. (See 
Chapman, Birds of Eastern North America.) Plan a chart upon 
which you may record your observations. Find out what you can 
of the purposes and the work of the Audubon Society. (Address 
all inquiries to the National Association of Audubon Societies, 
1974 Broadway, New York City.) 

XI 

SMALLER WILD MAMMALS OF THE VICINITY 

Make careful observations of each of the smaller wild mammals 
which you see during the spring months. Observe their activities, 
especially when they are unaware of your presence. From your 












94 


LABORATORY EXERCISES 


reading learn as much as you can of their economic importance. 
Note the characteristics of each, such as the size, the general color, 
the pecuhar markings, the food used, and the nature of the home. 
Note any adaptations which especially fit the animal for its mode 
of life. Plan a chart upon which to record your observations. 

APPENDIX 

I 

A TEST FOR CARBON DIOXIDE 

Add a little limewater to a test tube of the gas which is to be 
tested for the presence of CO 2 . If CO 2 is present, the limewater 
becomes milky in appearance. (A drop of limewater adhering 
to the end of a glass rod can be inserted in the tube. This is the 
most convenient method of applying the test.) The hmewater 
may be made by adding a piece of quicklime, about the size of an 
egg, to a quart of water. The liquid should be filtered before it is 
used. (See Waggoner, Fig. 123.) 

II 

A TEST FOR OXYGEN 

Lower a glowing Splinter into the gas which is to be tested for the 
presence of O. If it bursts quickly into a flame much free O is 
present. If it is extinguished, little or no free O is present. 

III 

FEHLING’S SOLUTION 

To prepare, make up the following solutions and keep in sepa¬ 
rate bottles: 

1. 35 gm. of copper sulphate dissolved in 500 cc. of H 2 O. 

2. 160 gm. of sodium hydroxide and 173 gm. of Rochelle salt 
dissolved in 500 cc. of H 2 O. 

When ready to use the solution, mix equal parts of the two. 


FOR WAGGONER’S BIOLOGY 


95 


IV 

STARCH PASTE 

To prepare starch paste mix 1 gm. of powdered starch with a 
little cold H 2 O. Add this mixture, drop by drop, to 100 cc. of 
boiling H 2 O, stirring all the time. Continue to boil for several 
minutes. This makes a thin starch paste suitable for use in the 
experiments concerned with tests for nutrients and for the action 
of enzymes. 


V 

FORMALIN AS A PRESERVATIVE 

To preserve material for labt)ratory use, a solution of one part 
commercial formalin to nine or ten parts H 2 O may be used. 





BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chapman, Frank M., Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America. D. 
Appleton and Co., N. Y., 1923. 

Comstock, John Henry, Insect Life. D. Appleton and Co., N. Y., 1923. 

Conn, H. W., Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. Ginn and Co., Boston, 
1917. 

Ditmar, Raymond L., The Reptile Book. Doubleday, Page and Co., Garden 
City, N. Y. 1922. 

Georgia, Ada E., A Manual of Weeds, Macmillan, N. Y., 1920. 

Gray’s New Manual of Botany. Rev’d by Robinson and Fernald. Ameri¬ 
can Book Co., N. Y., 1908. 

Keeler, Harriet L., Our Native Trees, Chas. Scribner’s Sons, N. Y., 1920. 

Keeler, Harriet L. Our Northern Shrubs, Chas. Scribner’s Sons, N. Y., 1920. 

Needham, James G. and Lloyd, J. T., The Life of Inland Waters. Com¬ 
stock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 

Nelson, Edward W., Smaller Mammals of North America, The National 
Geographic Magazine. Vol. XXXIII, No. 5, May, 1918. 

Nostrums and Quackery, Vol. I (1912), Vol. II (1921). American Medical 
Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago. 

(Note. — See Waggoner’s Modern Biology for additional reference.) 



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INDEX 


Abdomen, 50,64,65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70 
Abdominal walls, 50, 55 
Adaptation, 4, 8, 72, 77, 82, 83, 94 
Adenoid, 52 
Adult, 71, 72, 74 

Air, 11, 12, 54; tidal, 54; comple- 
mental, M; reserve, 54; residual, 
54 

Albumin, 13 
Alg®, 31 
Alum, 47, 48 
Ammonia, 13 
Amoeba, 57, 58 

Animal, 58, 60, 61, 63, 75, 76, 82, 
84, 85 

“Annual ring,” 25 

Antenna, 64, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72 

Antennule, 64 

Anther, 3 

Anus, 62, 80 

Aorta, 50, 52, 80 

Appendage, 65 

Appendix, 51 

Apple, 7 

Aquarium, 77, 78, 81 
Arches, gill, 78 
Arm, 49, 79 

Arrangement, 23, 28; bud, 86; 

leaf, 27, 28, 29, 30, 90, 91, 92 
Artery, 52 
Auricle, 52, 80 
Axil, 23, 27 

Bacteria, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 
“Balance in Nature,” 75 
Barberry, 34 
Bark, 23, 90, 91 
Beak, 83 

Bean, 7, 9, 10, 14 
Behavior, 89 


Bile duct, 51 
Birds, 75, 83, 89, 93 
Black rust, 34 
Bladder, urinary, 80 
Blade, 1, 2, 27 
Blood, 52, 80 

Blood vessel, 65; dorsal, 61, 62; 

ventral, 62 
Blue grass, 1, 22 

Body, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 66, 67, 77, 
79, 82, 83, 84; covering, 66, 72, 
73, 77, 79, 82, 83, 84; divisions, 
66; parts,* 72, 73 
Borer, 85 
Boric acid, 45 
Bract, 3, 4, 87 
Brain, 68, 81 
Branch, 23, 28, 65 
Branching, 26, 27, 90, 91 
Bread mold, 31 
Breast bone, 55 

Breathing, 55; quiet, 54; deep, 55 
Breeding place, 73, 74 
Bristles, 62 

Bud, 23, 86, 90, 91; terminal, 23; 

lateral, 23 
Bur, 7 
Butterfly, 71 

Cabbage butterfly, 71, 72; “worm,” 
71 

Calyx, 3, 7 

Cambium, 24 

Canal, radiating, 59 

Cane sugar, 13, 36 

Carapace, 64, 82 

Carbolic acid, 44 

Carbon dioxide, 16, 29, 55, 94 

Cat, 75 

Cell, 14, 17, 19, 20 


100 


INDEX 


Cell wall, 19 
Centrosome, 20 
Cephalothorax, 64 
Characteristics, 56; acquired, 56; in¬ 
herited, 56 
Check, 42 

Chest, 55; cavity, 50, 56; wall, 50 

Chloride of lime, 44, 48 

Chlorine, 48 

Chlorophyll, 27, 30, 31 

Chloroplast, 29 

Chromatin, 19 

Chromosome, 20 

Cilia, 59 

Cinquefoil, 26 

Circulation, 52 

Circulatory system, 52, 62, 65, 68 

Claws, 84 

Clitellum, 61 

^‘Cluster cup,” 34 

Cob, 2 

Cocklebur, 7 

Cocoon, 61 

Coelom, 62 

‘‘Colds,” 37, 38, 39 

Collar bone, 50 

Colon, 51; ascending, 51; descend¬ 
ing, 51; transverse, 51 
Compound eyes, 67, 72 
Conference, 6, 48 
Control, 42, 43, 44 
Cord, vocal, 51 
Core, 7 

Corn, 1, 10; kernel, 9, 13 
Corolla, 3, 7 
Cortex, 24 
Cotyledon, 9, 10, 11 
Coxa, 67 

Crayfish, 63, 64, 65, 66 
Crop, 62 
Crustacean, 60 
Culm, 1 
“Cure-all,” 37 
Cuticle, 29 
Cytoplasm, 19 

Dandelion, 86, 87 
Dent, 9 


Development, 69, 70, 71, 88 
Diaphragm, 50, 55, 56 
Dicotyledon, 24 
Diffusion, 20, 21 

Digestive, cavity, 60; system, 52, 
62, 66, 68, 80 
Disease germ, 40 
Disinfectant, 43, 44 
Disk floret, 4 
Dispersal, 8, 9, 88 
Dissemination, 92 
Domestic cat, 75 
Dorsal blood vessel, 61, 62 
Drainage, 18, 48 

Ear, 2, 84 
Eardrum, 79 
Earthworm, 61, 62 
Economic importance, 93, 94 
Ectoderm, 60 
Ectoplasm, 58, 59 
Egg, 61, 73, 81, 89 
Elm, 88 
Embryo, 9, 10 
Endoderm, 60 
Endoplasm, 58, 59 
Endosperm, 10, 11, 14 
English sparrow, 74, 75 
Environment, 56 
Enzyme, 15 
Epidermis, 27, 29 
Epiglottis, 52 
Eradication, 92 

Esophagus, 50, 62, 66, 68, 80 

Excretory system, 63, 68 

Exercise, 53 

Exoskeleton, 64 ,66 

Eyelid, 79, 83, 84 

Eyes, 67, 69, 71, 72, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84 

Eyestalk, 64 

Facets, 67 
Feeling, 64 
Fehling’s solution, 94 
Femur, 67 
Fermentation, 36 
Fibrovascular bundle, 2, 24, 29 
Filament, 3, 31, 78 


INDEX 


101 


* 


Filtration, 47 

Fin, 81; anal, 77; caudal, 77; dorsal, 
77; pectoral, 77; pelvic, 77 
Fin rays, 77 
Fish, 77 
Flight, 83 
Floral parts, 4 
Floret, 4, 5; disk, 4; ray, 4 
Flower, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 87, 88, 90, 92; 
arrangement, 4; cluster, 3, 4; com¬ 
posite, 4; simple, 3, 4 
Flowering, 88, 91 
Food, 89, 93 

Food habits, 75, 89, 93, 94 
Foot, 50, 58, 73, 79, 83, 84 
Frog, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82 
Fruit, 7, 8, 88, 90, 92 
Fruiting body, 33 
Fungous growth, 32, 33 
Fungus, 32, 33 
Fur, 84 

Ganglion, 63, 66, 69 
Garden, 75 
Gastric caecum, 68 
Geotropism, 77 
Geranium, 3, 27 
Germination, 11, 15 
Gill, 66, 78, 81; arch, 78; external, 
81; opening, 78, 81 
Gizzard, 62 
Glucose, 12, 20, 36 
Granule, 58 
Grasses, 1 

Grasshopper, 66, 67, 68, 69, 

“Green glands,” 64, 66 
Grub, 69 
Guard cell, 27 
Gullet, 50, 52, 59 

Habitat, 92 
Hand, 79 

Hay infusion, 41, 43, 58 
Head, 50, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 
78, 79, 83 
Health, 37 
Hearing, 64 

Heart, 52, 53, 62, 65, 68, 80 
Heart beat, 53 


“Heart rot,” 33 
“Heart-wood,” 25 
Hilum, 7, 9 

Homologous structures, 64 
Honey bee, 6, 7, 72 
House fly, 72, 73, 74 
Hydra, 60 
Hydrotaxis, 76 
Hypha, 32 
Hypocotyl, 9, 11 

Immature ear, 2 
Insect, 5 

Internode, 1, 2, 24 

Interrelation, 74, 85 

Intestine, 51, 68, 80; large, 51, 80; 

small, 51, 80 
Involucre, 4 
Iodine, 12, 13 

Jaws, 49, 64, 79, 82 

Kernel, corn, 2, 9, 10 
Kidney, 51, 63, 80 

Labium, 67 
Labrum, 67 

Large intestine, 51, 80 
Larva, 69, 71, 73 
Larynx, 51 
Lawn, 75, 92 

Leaf, 1, 2, 26, 27, 29; appearance, 
90; arrangement, 27, 28, 90, 91, 
92; compound, 27; form, 90, 91, 
92; scar, 23; simple, 27 
Legs, 49, 66, 67, 71, 73, 81, 82, 84 
Lettuce, 17 
Light, 78 
Lilac, 86, 87 
Limb, 49, 79 
Lips, 51 

Liver, 50, 66, 80 
Locomotion, 82 
Locust, 5, 66, 67, 68, 69 
Lungs, 54, 55, 80 

Macronucleus, 59 
Maggot, 73 
Mammal, 83, 84, 93 


102 


INDEX 


Mandible, 64, 67 
Manure, 72 
Maple, 88 
Maxilla, 65, 67 
Maxilliped, 65 
May beetle, 69, 70 
Medium, culture, 42 
Medullary rays, 24, 25 
Mesentery, 80 
Mesothorax, 67 
Metathorax, 67 

Metamorphosis, 81; complete, 70; 

incomplete, 69 
Micronucleus, 59 
Micropyle, 9 
Midrib, 2 
Mitosis, 19, 20 
Moisture, 11, 12, 76 
Molting, 64 
Monocotyledon, 24 
Mosquito, 73, 74 

Mouth, 60, 61, 68, 78, 79, 83; cavity, 
62; opening, 59; parts, 67, 69, 71, 
73 

Mucor, 31 
Muscles, 53, 66, 80 
Mycelium, 32, 33 

Nasal passages, 51, 54 
Neck, 83 
Nematocyst, 61 
Nerve, 81 

Nerve cord, 63, 66, 69; spinal, 81; 
ventral, 69 

Nervous system, 63, 66, 68, 81 

Nest building, 89 

Node, 1, 2, 24, 27 

Nostril, 79, 82, 83 

Nostrum, 38, 39 

Nucleus, 19, 58 

Nutrient, 12, 13 

Oats, 35 
Oat seed, 17 
Oat smut, 35 
Ocellus, 67 5 

Odor, 32, 35, 36 
Oil, 13 


Operculum, 78, 81 
Oral groove, 59 
Orbit, 79 

Organic matter, 22, 45, 46 
Organism, 41, 42 
Osmosis, 18, 21 
Ovary, 3, 7, 63, 80 
Oviduct, 68 
Ovipositor, 67, 68 
Ovule, 3 

Oxygen, 16, 29, 94 

Palate, hard, 51; soft, 51 

Palisade tissue, 29 

Palpus, 67 

Pancreas, 51, 80 

‘‘Parachute,’’ dandelion, 87 

Paramecium, 58, 59 

“Patent” medicine, 38, 39 

Peas, 12 

Peduncle, 3 

Pellicle, 59 

Petal, 3 

Petiole, 27 

Pharynx, 51 

Phloem, 24 

Photosynthesis, 29, 30, 78 
Phototaxis, 76 
Phototropism, 76, 77 
Pigeon, 83 
Pistil, 3, 5, 88 
Pistillate flower, 88 
Pith, 1, 2, 24 

Plant, 1, 3, 26, 29, 30, 76, 81, 85, 87, 
92 

Plastron, 82 
Plumule, 9, 10, 11 
Pod, 7 
Poles, 20 
Pollen, 3, 5 

Pollination, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 88 
Pollution, 48 
Pond, 84 

Potassium permanganate, 20, 46 
Potato, 14; scab, 35; tuber, 26 
Preservative, 43 
Proleg, 71 
Propagation, 26 


INDEX 


103 


Prostomium, 61 

Protein, 13, 14 

Prothorax, 67 

Protococcus, 31 

Pseudopodia, 58 

Ptyalin, 15 

Public highway, 48 

Pulmonary, artery, 52; vein, 52 

Pulp, 7 

Pulsation, 53 

Pulse, 53 

Pupa, 69, 72, 73 

Purification, water, 47, 48 

Quarter-sawed oak, 25 

Rabbit, 83 < 

Radial section, 25 

Radiating canal, 59 

Radicle, 9, 10 

Radish, 3, 17 

Ragweed, 8, 57 

Ray, 24 

Ray floret, 4 

Reaction, 76, 77 

Receptacle, 3 

Rectum, 68 

Red rust, 33 

Red-winged blackbird, 89 
Reproductive system, 63, 68 
Reptile, 82, 93 
Reservoir, 47 
Resistance, 40 
Respiration, 16, 29, 62, 78 
Respiratory, system, 51, 52, 54, 62, 
66, 68, 78, 80; tract, 37 
Rhizoid, 32 
Rhizome, 26 
Ribs, 49, 55 
Robin, 89 
Rochelle salts, 94 
Rodent, 83 

Root, 1, 2, 16, 17, 18; air, 16; brace, 
2; fibrous, 16; lateral, 2; soil, 16; 
storage, 16; tap, 16; verticle, 1; 
water, 16; woody, 16 
Root cap, 17 
Root hair, 17, 18 


Root stock, 26 

“Rosette” arrangement, 28, 87 

Rostrum, 64 

Rust, wheat, 33, 34 

Saliva, 15 
Salt, 44 

Sanitary conditions, 48 
“Sap-wood,” 25 
Scab, potato, 35 
Scale, 77, 82, 86, 88 
Scutellum, 10 
Sediment, 22, 46, 47, 48 
Seed, 8, 88 

Seed dispersal, 8, 9, 88 
Seedling, 10 
Segment, 61, 66 
Sepal, 3 
Shank, 79 
Sheath, 1, 2, 10 
Shell, 82 

Shoulder blade, 49 
Shrubs, 91 
Sight, 64 
“Silks,” corn, 2 
Skeleton, 49, 50, 82 
Skin, 80 
Skull, 49 
Slaked lime, 44 
Small intestine, 51 
Smell, 64 
Snake, 82, 83 
Sod, 22 

Sodium hydroxide, 94 
Soft palate, 51 
Soil, 22 
Sowbug, 76 
Sparrow, 75 
Sperm, 61 
Spinal cord, 81 
Spindle, 20 
Spines, 77 

Spiracle, 66, 67, 68, 69 
Spirogyra, 31 
Sporangium, 32 
Spores, 32, 33, 35 
Squash bug, 70 
Squirrel, 80 


104 


INDEX 


Stages, larval, 69, 71, 72, 73; pupal, 
69, 72, 73 
Stamen, 3, 88 
Staminate flower, 88 
Starch, 12, 15, 29, 30, 36 
Starch paste, 95 
Statocyst, 64 
Stem, 1, 2, 23, 24 
Sterilization, 42 
Stigma, 3 
Stimulus, 76, 77 
Sting, 72 
Stipule, 27 
Stolon, 26 

Stomach, 51, 66, 68, 80 
Stomate, 27, 29 
Strawberry, 26 
Street, 48, 74 
“String,” bean pod, 7 
Stump, 84 
Style, 3 
Sugar, 13 
Sunfish, 77, 78 

System, circulatory, 52, 62, 65, 68; 
digestive, 52, 62, 68; excretory, 63, 
68; nervous, 63, 66, 68, 81; re¬ 
productive, 63, 68; respiratory, 50, 
54, 62, 68, 78 
Swimmeret, 65 

Tadpole, 81 
Tail, 77, 81 
Tarsus, 67 
Tassel, corn, 2 
Taste, 64 
Teeth, 51, 79, 84 
Telson, 65 
Temperature, 11, 12 
Tentacle, 60 
Testis, 80 
Thigh, 79 

Thorax, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70 

Throat, 51 

Tibia, 67 

Timothy, 1 

Timothy hay, 41, 44 

Tissue, 24, 29 

Toes, 79, 82 


Tongue, 51, 79, 83 
Tonsil, 52 
Tortoise, 82 
Trachea, 50, 68 
Transpiration*, 30 
Transplanting, 18 
Tree, 88, 90 
Trochanter, 67 
Tropism, 77 
Trunk, 49, 50 
Turgor, 22 
Turtle, 82 
Twig, 23, 86 
Tympanum, 68 

U. S. Public Health Service, 37 

Vacuole, 36, 58; contractile, 53, 59; 

food, 58, 59 
Variation, 57 
Vein, 2, 27, 52 
Ventral blood vessel, 62 
Ventricle, 52, 80 
Vertebra, 49 
Vertebrate, 49, 50 
Vinegar, 44 
Vocal cord, 51 

Waist, 55 

Water, 45; cistern, 45; distilled, 45; 
drinking, 46, 47; faucet, 45; pond, 
45; purification, 47; supply, 47; 
surface, 45; well, 45 
Weeds, 75, 92 
Well, 48 

Wheat rust, 33, 34 
Wild flower, 92 
Wind, 8 

Wings, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73, 83 
Wood section, 25; longitudinal, 25; 
radial, 25; tangential, 25; trans¬ 
verse, 25 
“Worker,” 72 
Worm, 61, 62, 63, 71 
“Worm,” cabbage, 71 

Xylem, 24 

Yeast, 34, 36 

“Zone of root hairs,” 18 


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